This article uses the IPA to transcribe Irish. Readers familiar with other conventions may wish to see Help:IPA/Irish for a comparison of the IPA system with those used in learners' materials.
Irish spelling represents all Irish dialects to a high degree despite their considerable phonological variation, e.g. crann ("tree") is read /kɾˠan̪ˠ/ in Mayo and Ulster, /kɾˠaːn̪ˠ/ in Galway, or /kɾˠəun̪ˠ/ in Munster. Some words may have dialectal pronunciations not reflected by their standard spelling, and they sometimes have distinct dialectal spellings to reflect this.[2][3]
Alphabet
Gaelic type with Roman type equivalents and the additional lenited letters.
Latin script has been the writing system used to write Irish since the 5th century, when it replaced Ogham, which was used to write Primitive Irish and Old Irish.[4] Prior to the mid-20th century, Gaelic type (cló Gaelach) was the main typeface used to write Irish; now, it is usually replaced by Roman type (cló Rómhánach). The use of Ogham and Gaelic type today is restricted to decorative or self-consciously traditional contexts. The dot above a lenited letter in Gaelic type is usually replaced by a following ⟨h⟩ in Roman type (e.g. ⟨ċ⟩ → ⟨ch⟩).[5]
Letters and letter names
The traditional Irish alphabet carved in Gaelic type on a building in Dublin, with each type of diacritic (síneadh fada and ponc séimhithe) as well as the Tironian et.
The traditional Irish alphabet (aibítir) consists of 18 letters: ⟨a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u⟩. It does not contain ⟨j, k, q, v, w, x, y, z⟩, although they are used in scientific terminology and modern loanwords of foreign origin. ⟨v⟩ occurs in a small number of (mainly onomatopoeic) native words (e.g. vácarnach "to quack" and vrác "caw") and colloquialisms (e.g. víog for bíog "chirp" and vís for bís "screw").[6]⟨h⟩, when not prefixed to a word initial vowel or after a consonant to show lenition, primarily occurs word initially in loanwords, e.g. hata "hat". ⟨k⟩ is the only letter not listed by Ó Dónaill.
Vowels may be accented with an acute accent (⟨á, é, í, ó, ú⟩; see below).[7] Accented letters are considered variants of their unaccented equivalent, and they follow their unaccented equivalents in dictionaries (i.e. a, á…abhac, ábhacht, abhaile...).
English letter names are generally used in both colloquial and formal speech but there are modern Irish letter names (based on the original Latin names), similar to other languages that use a Latin script alphabet. Tree names were historically used to name the letters. Tradition taught that they all derived from the names of Ogham letters, though it is now known that only some of the earliest were named after trees.
Consonants are generally "broad" (velarised) when beside ⟨a, á, o, ó, u, ú⟩ and "slender" (palatalised) when beside ⟨e, é, i, í⟩.[3][9][10] Irish orthography does not allow consonant letters or digraphs to be doubled (except in ⟨ll, nn, rr⟩), in compound words which would result in doubled consonants they are broken up by a hyphen (see below).
Vowel sequences are common in Irish spelling due to the "caol le caol agus leathan le leathan" ("slender with slender and broad with broad") rule, i.e. that the vowels on either side of any consonant (or consonant cluster) must be both slender (⟨e, é, i, í⟩) or both broad (⟨a, á, o, ó, u, ú⟩), to unambiguously determine if the consonant(s) are broad or slender.
An apparent exception is ⟨ae⟩, which is followed by a broad consonant despite the ⟨e⟩.[9][10][11][5]
The pronunciation of vowels in Irish is mostly predictable from the following rules:
Unstressed short vowels are generally reduced to /ə/.
⟨e⟩ is silent before a broad vowel.
⟨i⟩ is silent before ⟨u, ú⟩ and after a vowel (except sometimes in ⟨ei, oi, ui⟩).
⟨io, oi, ui⟩ have multiple pronunciations that depend on adjacent consonants.
Accented vowels (⟨á, é, í, ó, ú⟩) represent long vowels and in digraphs and trigraphs containing them, surrounding unaccented vowels are silent, but there are several exceptions, e.g. when preceded by two unaccented vowels.
Accented vowels in succession are both pronounced, e.g. séú/ˈʃeːuː/ "sixth", ríúil/ˈɾˠiːuːlʲ/ "royal, kingly, majestic", báíocht/ˈbˠaːiːxt̪ˠ/ "sympathy", etc.
⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ are long before ⟨á, ó⟩, e.g. fiáin/ˈfʲiːaːnʲ/ "wild", ruóg/ˈɾˠuːoːɡ/ "twine"
A following ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ lengthens some vowels and in Munster and Connacht a following syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ or word-final ⟨m, ng⟩ may lengthen or diphthongise some vowels depending on dialect.
When followed by ⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩, a short vowel usually forms a diphthong or lengthens. For ⟨(e)adh, (a)idh, (a)igh⟩, see -⟨dh, (a)igh⟩ in exceptions in verb forms.
After a short vowel, an unwritten epenthetic/ə/ gets inserted between ⟨l, n, r⟩ + ⟨b, bh, ch, f, g, mh⟩ (as well as ⟨p⟩, when derived from devoiced ⟨b, bh, mh⟩), when within a morpheme boundary, e.g. gorm/ˈɡɔɾˠəmˠ/ "blue", dearg/ˈdʲaɾˠəɡ/ "red", dorcha/ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəxə/ "dark", ainm/ˈanʲəmʲ/ "name", deilgneach/ˈdʲɛlʲəɟnʲəx/ "prickly, thorny"’ leanbh/ˈl̠ʲanˠəw/ "child", airgead/ˈaɾʲəɟəd̪ˠ/ "silver, money". The main exception to this is ⟨ng⟩ which is mainly used for /ŋ/ or /ɲ/.
Epenthesis does not occur after long vowels and diphthongs, e.g. téarma/tʲeːɾˠmˠə/ "term" or dualgas/ˈd̪ˠuəlˠɡəsˠ/ "duty", or across morpheme boundaries (i.e. after prefixes and in compound words), e.g. garmhac/ˈɡaɾˠwak/ "grandson" (from gar- "close, near" + mac "son"), an-chiúin/ˈan̪ˠçuːnʲ/ "very quiet" (from an- "very" + ciúin "quiet"), carrbhealach/ˈkaːɾˠvʲalˠəx/ "carriageway, roadway" (from carr "car" + bealach "way, road").
In Munster, epenthesis also occurs across morpheme boundaries, when ⟨l, n, r⟩ follow ⟨b, bh, ch, g, mh⟩ (after any vowel) or ⟨th⟩ (after short vowels), and when ⟨n⟩ follows ⟨c, g, m, r⟩.
An Irish road sign with a dotless ı in Comhaırle, obaır, maoınıú, Roınn, Oıdhreachta and Oıleán.
An Caighdeán Oifigiúil currently uses one diacritic, the acute accent, though traditionally a second was used, the overdot. If diacritics are unavailable, e.g. on a computer using ASCII, the overdot is replaced by a following ⟨h⟩, e.g. Ḃí sé → Bhí sé "He/It was" and there is no standard for replacing an acute accent, though sometimes it is indicated by a following slash, e.g. fírinne → fi/rinne "truth".[12]
The acute accent (⟨◌́⟩; agúid or (síneadh) fada "long (sign)")a is used to indicate a long vowel, as in bád/bˠaːd̪ˠ/ "boat". However, there are other conventions to indicate a long vowel, such as:
A following ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩, e.g. ard/aːɾˠd̪ˠ/ "high", eirleach/ˈeːɾˠlʲəx/ "destruction", dorn/d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ "fist", and, in Connacht, a word-final ⟨m⟩, e.g. am/aːmˠ/ "time".
The digraphs ⟨ae, ao, eo⟩, e.g. aerach/ˈeːɾˠəx/ "gay", maol/mˠiːlˠ/ "bare", ceol/coːlˠ/ "music".
The tri/tetragraphs ⟨omh(a), umh(a)⟩, e.g. comharsa/ˈkoːɾˠsˠə/ "neighbour", Mumhain/mˠuːnʲ/ "Munster".
⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ before ⟨á⟩ or ⟨ó⟩, e.g. fiáin/ˈfʲiːaːnʲ/ "wild", ruóg/ˈɾˠuːoːɡ/ "twine".
The overdot (⟨◌̇⟩; ponc séimhithe "dot of lenition") was traditionally used to indicate lenition, though An Caighdeán exclusively uses a following ⟨h⟩ for this purpose. In Old Irish, the overdot was only used for ⟨ḟ, ṡ⟩, while the following ⟨h⟩ was used for ⟨ch, ph, th⟩ and the lenition of other letters was not indicated. Later the two methods were used in parallel to represent lenition of any consonant (except ⟨l, n, r⟩) until the standard practice became to use the overdot in Gaelic type and the following ⟨h⟩ in Roman type. Thus the dotted letters (litreacha buailte "struck letters") ⟨ḃ, ċ, ḋ, ḟ, ġ, ṁ, ṗ, ṡ, ṫ⟩ are equivalent to letters followed by a ⟨h⟩, i.e. ⟨bh, ch, dh, fh, gh, mh, ph, sh, th⟩.
Íoc ⁊ Taispeáin ("Pay & Display") sign in Dublin with the Tironian et for agus "and".
Irish punctuation is similar to English. An apparent exception is the Tironian et (⟨⁊⟩; agus) which abbreviates the word agus "and", like the ampersand (⟨&⟩) abbreviates "and" in English. It is generally substituted by a seven (⟨7⟩) in texts.
A hyphen (fleiscín) is used in Irish after ⟨t, n⟩ when prefixed to a masculine vowel-initial word as an initial mutation, e.g. an t-arán "the bread", a n-iníon "their daughter". However, it is omitted when the vowel is capitalised, e.g. an tAlbanach "the Scotsman", Ár nAthair "Our Father". No hyphen is used when ⟨h⟩ is prefixed to a vowel-initial word, e.g. a hiníon "her daughter".
A hyphen is also used in compound words under certain circumstances:
between two vowels, e.g. mí-ádh "misfortune"
between two similar consonants, e.g. droch-chaint "bad language", grod-díol "prompt payment"
in a three-part compound, e.g. buan-chomhchoiste "permanent joint committee"
after the prefixes do-, fo-, so- before a word beginning with ⟨bha, bhla, bhra, dha, gha, ghla, ghra, mha⟩, e.g. do-bhlasta "bad tasting", fo-ghlac "subsume", so-mharfacht "mortality"
in capitalised titles, e.g. An Príomh-Bhreitheamh "the Chief Justice"
after an- "very" and dea- "good", e.g. an-mhór "very big", dea-mhéin "goodwill"
An apostrophe (uaschamóg) is used to indicate an omitted vowel in the following cases:
the prepositions de "from" and do "to" both become d' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in Thit sí d'each "She fell from a horse" and Tabhair d'fhear an tí é "Give it to the landlord"
the possessive pronouns mo "my" and do "your (singular)" become m' and d' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in m'óige "my youth", d'fhiacail "your tooth"
the preverbal particledo becomes d' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in d'ardaigh mé "I raised", d'fhanfadh sé "he would wait"
the copular particle ba becomes b' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in B'ait liom é sin "I found that odd" and b'fhéidir "maybe". However, ba is used before the pronouns é, í, iad, as in Ba iad na ginearáil a choinnigh an chumhacht "It was the generals who kept the power"
Capitalisation rules are similar to English. However, a prefixed letter remains in lowercase when the base initial is capitalised (an tSín "China"). For text written in all caps, the prefixed letter is kept in lowercase, or small caps (STAIR NA HÉIREANN "THE HISTORY OF IRELAND").[13] An initial capital is used for:[14]
Start of sentences
Names of people, places (except the words an, na, de),[15] languages, and adjectives of people and places (Micheál Ó Murchú "Michael Murphy"; Máire Mhac an tSaoi "Mary McEntee"; de Búrca "Burke"; Sliabh na mBan "Slievenamon"; Fraincis "French"; bia Iodálach "Italian food")
Names of months, weeks and feast-days (Meán Fómhair "September"; an Luan "Monday"; Oíche Nollag "Christmas Eve")
Most Irish abbreviations are straightforward, e.g. leathanach → lch. ("page → p.") and mar shampla → m.sh. ("exempli gratia (for example) → e.g."), but two that require explanation are: is é sin → .i. ("that is → i.e.") and agus araile → ⁊rl./srl. ("et cetera (and so forth) → &c./etc.").[17] Like ⟨th⟩ in English, ⟨ú⟩ follows an ordinal numeral, e.g. Is é Lá Fheile Phádraig an 17ú lá den Márta "St. Patrick's day is the 17th [day] of March".
Spelling reform
The literary Classical Irish which survived till the 17th century was archaic; the first attempt at simplification was not until 1639.[18] The spelling represented a dialect continuum including distinctions lost in all surviving dialects by the Gaelic revival of the late 19th century.
The idea of a spelling reform, linked to the use of Roman or Gaelic type, was controversial in the early decades of the 20th century.[19] The Irish Texts Society's 1904 Irish-English dictionary by Patrick S. Dinneen used traditional spellings.[19] After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, all Acts of the Oireachtas were translated into Irish, initially using Dinneen's spellings, with a list of simplifications accumulating over the years.[19] When Éamon de Valera became President of the Executive Council after the 1932 election, policy reverted to older spellings, which were used in the enrolled text of the 1937 Constitution.[19] In 1941, de Valera decided to publish a "popular edition" of the Constitution with simplified spelling and established a committee of experts, which failed to agree on recommendations.[19][20] Instead, the Oireachtas' own translation service prepared a booklet, Litriú na Gaeilge: Lámhleabhar an Chaighdeáin Oifigiúil, published in 1945.[20]
Some pre-reform spellings criticised by T. F. O'Rahilly and their modern forms include:[19]beirbhiughadh → beiriú, imthighthe → imithe, faghbháil → fáil, urradhas → urrús, filidheacht → filíocht.
The booklet was expanded in 1947,[21] and republished as An Caighdeán Oifigiúil "The Official Standard" in 1958, combined with the standard grammar of 1953.[22] It attracted initial criticism as unhistorical and artificial; some spellings fail to represent the pronunciation of some dialects, while others preserve letters unpronounced in any dialect.[22] Its status was reinforced by use in the civil service and as a guide for Tomás de Bhaldraithe's 1959 English–Irish dictionary and Niall Ó Dónaill's 1977 Irish–English dictionary.[22] A review of the written standard, including spelling, was announced in 2010, aiming to improve "simplicity, internal consistency, and logic".[23] The result was the 2017 update of An Caighdeán Oifigiúil.[24]
^a Vowels with an acute accent are read as [á/é/í/ó/ú] fada "long [á/é/í/ó/ú]".
^b In the verbal adjective suffix, -⟨th⟩- becomes ⟨t⟩ after ⟨d, gh, l, n, s, t, th⟩ (⟨gh, th⟩ are deleted before it is added) and it becomes ⟨f⟩ after ⟨bh, mh⟩ which are deleted before it is added.
^c After consonants, /h/ is silent, but devoices preceding voiced consonants. See Irish phonology.
^Scott, Brian M. (8 April 1996). "[Reply to] Gaelic Translation Needed". Usenet newsgroup rec.org.sca – via groups.google.com. ... the corresponding Irish Gaelic word is 'ge/ar' (slash indicating an acute accent on the previous vowel).... ... the later spelling of the patronymic, which I've also recast in its feminine form, is 'ni/ Chlu/mha/in'. [Further examples in the next comment by Heather Rose Jones, a significant voice in SCA heraldry.]
^Central Translation Unit. "The Scope of the Process". Review of Caighdeán Oifigiúil na Gaeilge. Department of Community, Equality and Gaeltacht Affairs. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 12 February 2012.
^"Rannóg an Aistriúcháin > An Caighdeán Oifigiúil". In September 2014, members of the public and other interested parties were asked to make submissions regarding An Caighdeán Oifigiúil. An Advisory Committee was also established, which worked tirelessly for a year and a half to identify issues and to make recommendations. The result of this work is the new edition of An Caighdeán Oifigiúil, published by the Houses of the Oireachtas Service in 2017.
Bibliography
Gramadach na Gaeilge agus Litriú na Gaeilge: An Caighdeán Oifigiúil. Dublin: Oifig an tSoláthair. 1994.
Mac Eoin, Gearóid (1993). "Irish". In Martin J. Ball; James Fife (eds.). The Celtic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 101–44. ISBN0-415-01035-7.
Ó Baoill, Dónall P. (1986). Lárchanúint don Ghaeilge (in Irish). Dublin: The Linguistics Institute of Ireland. ISBN0-946452-06-7.