The language is transitional between Hindko and Standard Punjabi[2] and is mutually intelligible with both.[3] There have been efforts at cultivation as a literary language,[4] although a local standard has not been established yet.[5] The Shahmukhi script is used to write the language, such as in the works of Punjabi poet Mian Muhammad Bakhsh.
Grierson in his early 20th-century Linguistic Survey of India assigned it to a so-called "Northern cluster" of Lahnda (Western Punjabi), but this classification, as well as the validity of the Lahnda grouping in this case, have been called into question.[6] In a sense both Pothwari, as well as other Lahnda varieties, and Standard Punjabi are "dialects" of a "Greater Punjabi" macrolanguage.[7]
Due to effects of dominant languages in Pakistani media like Urdu, Standard Punjabi and English and religious impact of Arabic and Persian, Pahari-Pothwari like other regional varieties of Pakistan are continuously expanding its vocabulary base with loan words.[8]
Geographic distribution and dialects
75km 50miles
Baramulla
Srinagar
Bagh
Rajouri
Poonch
Jhelum
Murree
Mirpur
Gujarkhan
Bharakao
Abbottabad
Muzaffarabad
Azad Kashmir and surrounding areas with some of the locations mentioned in this section. Places where Pahari–Pothwari is spoken are in dark red.
There are at least three major dialects: Pothwari, Mirpuri and Pahari.[c] The Pothwari spoken in Gujar Khan is regarded as the most prestigious dialect of Pothwari spoken in Pakistan.[9]
The dialects are mutually intelligible,[10] but the difference between the northernmost and the southernmost dialects (from Muzaffarabad and Mirpur respectively) is enough to cause difficulties in understanding.[11]
Pothohar Plateau
Pothwari (پوٹھواری), also spelt Potwari, Potohari and Pothohari (پوٹھوہاری),[12] is spoken in the Pothohar Plateau of northern Punjab,[13] an area administratively within Rawalpindi division.[14] Pothwari is its most common name, and some call it PindiwalPunjabi to differentiate it from the Punjabi spoken elsewhere in Punjab.[15]
Pothwar scenery with hill backdropGeographic distribution of various Pahari languages and dialects across the Lower Himalayas. (Blue - Pahari-Pothwari, Purple - Hindko)
Pothwari extends southwards up to the Salt Range, with the city of Jhelum marking the border with Majha Punjabi. To the north, Pothwari transitions into the Pahari-speaking area, with Bharakao, near Islamabad, generally regarded as the point where Pothwari ends and Pahari begins.[16] Pothwari has been represented by their own people and their own community as they re-presented with their own ethnic group,[5][d] 85.1% of households had Pothwari as mother tongue.
Among the dialects of the Pahari-Pothwari dialect cluster, the variety spoken on the Pothohar is the only native language in the Rawalpindi division and it is ethno-linguistic group.[citation needed] This Pothwari is also regarded as the most prestigious dialect spoken in the region.[citation needed]
Mirpur
East of the Pothwari areas, across the Jhelum River into Mirpur District in Azad Kashmir, the language is more similar to Pothwari than to the Pahari spoken in the rest of Azad Kashmir.[17]
Locally it is known by a variety of names:[e]Pahari, Mirpur Pahari, Mirpuri,[f] and Pothwari,[18] while some of its speakers call it Punjabi.[19]
Mirpuris possess a strong sense of Kashmiri identity that overrides linguistic identification with closely related groups outside Azad Kashmir, such as the PothwariPunjabis.[20]
The Mirpur region has been the source of the greater part of Pakistani immigration to the UK, a process that started when thousands were displaced by the construction of the Mangla Dam in the 1960s and emigrated to fill labour shortages in England.[21]
The British Mirpuri diaspora now numbers several hundred thousand, and Pahari has been argued to be the second most common mother tongue in the UK, yet the language is little known in the wider society there and its status has remained surrounded by confusion.[22]
Kashmir, Murree and the Galyat
Pahari (پہاڑی) is spoken to the north of Pothwari. The central cluster of Pahari dialects is found around Murree.[23] This area is in the Galyat: the hill country of Murree Tehsil in the northeast of Rawalpindi District (just north of the capital Islamabad) and the adjoining areas in southeastern Abbottabad District.[24] One name occasionally found in the literature for this language is Dhundi-Kairali (Ḍhūṇḍī-Kaiṛālī), a term first used by Grierson[25] who based it on the names of the two major tribes of the area – the Kairal and the Dhund.[13] Its speakers call it Pahari in Murree tehsil, while in Abbottabad district it is known as either Hindko or Ḍhūṇḍī.[26]
Nevertheless, Hindko – properly the language of the rest of Abbottabad District and the neighbouring areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa – is generally regarded as a different language.[27] It forms a dialect continuum with Pahari, [13] and the transition between the two is in northern Azad Kashmir and in the Galyat region. For example, on the road from Murree northwest towards the city of Abbottabad, Pahari gradually changes into Hindko between Ayubia and Nathiagali.[28]
Distribution of Pahari-Pothwari dialects with subdivisions overlayed
A closely related dialect is spoken across the Jhelum River in Azad Kashmir, north of the Mirpuri areas. Names associated in the literature with this dialect are Pahari (itself the term most commonly used by the speakers themselves), Chibhālī,[29] named after the Chibhal region[30] or the Chibh ethnic group,[14] and Poonchi (پونچھی, also spelt Punchhi). The latter name has been variously applied to either the Chibhali variety specific to the district of Poonch,[31] or to the dialect of the whole northern half of Azad Kashmir.[32]
This dialect (or dialects) has been seen either as a separate dialect from the one in Murree,[25] or as belonging to the same central group of Pahari dialects.[33] The dialect of the district of Bagh, for example, has more shared vocabulary with the core dialects from Murree (86–88%) than with the varieties of either Muzaffarabad (84%) or Mirpur (78%).[34]
In Muzaffarabad the dialect shows lexical similarity[g] of 83–88% with the central group of Pahari dialects, which is high enough for the authors of the sociolinguistic survey to classify it is a central dialect itself, but low enough to warrant noting its borderline status.[35] The speakers however tend to call their language Hindko[36] and to identify more with the Hindko spoken to the west,[37] despite the lower lexical similarity (73–79%) with the core Hindko dialects of Abbottabad and Mansehra.[38] Further north into the Neelam Valley the dialect, now known locally as Parmi, becomes closer to Hindko.[39]
Pahari is also spoken further east across the Line of Control into the Pir Panjal mountains in Indian Jammu and Kashmir. The population, estimated at 1 million,[40] is found in the region between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers: most significantly in the districts of Poonch and Rajouri, to a lesser extent in neighbouring Baramulla and Kupwara,[41] and also – as a result of the influx of refugees during the Partition of 1947 – scattered throughout the rest of Jammu and Kashmir.[42] Pahari is among the regional languages listed in the sixth schedule of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir.[43] This Pahari is sometimes conflated with the Western Pahari languages spoken in the mountainous region in the south-east of Indian Jammu and Kashmir. These languages, which include Bhadarwahi and its neighbours, are often called "Pahari", although not same they are closely related to Pahari–Pothwari.[44]
This type of future tense was also used by classical Punjabi poets. Punjabi poet Bulleh Shah sometimes uses a similar form of future tense in his poetry[49]
Shahmukhi: جو کُجھ کَرسین, سو کُجھ پاسیں
Transliteration: Jo kujh karsãi, so kujh paasãi
Translation: Whatsoever you do, is what you shall gain
The past continuous tense in Pothwari resembles that of Eastern Punjabi, however depending on the dialect, there may be slight variations.
English
Pahari-Pothwari
Standard Punjabi
I was doing (m.)
میں کرنا پیا ساں
ਮੈਂ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਸਾਂ
maĩ karna pya sã
میں کردا پیا ساں
ਮੈਂ ਕਰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਸਾਂ
maĩ karda pya sã
We were doing (m./mixed)
اساں کرنے پئے سیاں/ساں
ਅਸਾਂ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਸਿਆਂ/ਸਾਂ
اسِیں کردے پئے ساں
ਅਸੀਂ ਕਰਦੇ ਪਏ ਸਾਂ
You were doing (sing., m.)
تُوں کرنا پیا سیں
ਤੂੰ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਸੈਂ
تُوں کردا پیا سیں
ਤੂੰ ਕਰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਸੈਂ
You were doing (pl., m./mixed or sing. formal)
تُساں کرنے پئے سیو/سو
ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਸਿਓ/ਸੋ
تُسِیں کردے پئے سو
ਤੁਸੀਂ ਕਰਦੇ ਪਏ ਸੋ
He was doing
اوہ کرنا پیا سا/سی
ਉਹ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਸਾ/ਸੀ
اوہ کردا پیا سی
ਉਹ ਕਰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਸੀ
She was doing
اوہ کرنی پئی سی
ਉਹ ਕਰਨੀ ਪਈ ਸੀ
اوہ کردی پئی سی
ਉਹ ਕਰਦੀ ਪਈ ਸੀ
They were doing (m./mixed)
اوہ کرنے پئے سے/سن
ਉਹ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਸੇ/ਸਨ
اوہ کردے پئے سن
ਉਹ ਕਰਦੇ ਪਏ ਸਨ
They were doing (f.)
اوہ کرنِیاں پئیاں سِیاں/سن
ਉਹ ਕਰਨੀਆਂ ਪਈਆਂ ਸੀਆਂ/ਸਨ
اوہ کردِیاں پئیاں سن
ਉਹ ਕਰਦੀਆਂ ਪਈਆਂ ਸਨ
The place of "peyā" may sometimes be switched with respect to the verb.
"Tusā̃ báhū̃ changā kamm pa'e karne ò", meaning "You (plural/sing. formal) are doing a very good thing"
"Mē̃ vī tā̃ éhe gall karnā sā̃ peyā", meaning "I was also saying the same thing"
"Mē̃ vī tā̃ ehe gall peyā karnā ā̃̀", meaning "I am also saying the same thing"
Tribal groupings
Pahari-Pothwari speakers belong to the same tribes found in Punjab. While the names of the tribes remain the same, the Punjabi word for tribe Birādrī/Barādarī (برادری) becomes Bilādrī/Balādarī (بل ادری) in Pahari-Pothwari.
Numbering system
Pahari-Pothwari follows the numbering traditions of Standard Punjabi. A point of departure from Eastern Punjabi dialects occurs in the use of Trai (ترَے) instead of Tinn (تِنّ) for the number 3. Western Punjabi and Doabi also tend to use trai over tinn.[52]
Similarly, Pothwari and other Western Punjabi dialects use "Yārā̃" (یاراں) for "Gyarā̃" (گیاراں), "Trei" (ترئی) for "Tei" (تئی) "Panji" (پنجِی) for "Pachchi" (پچّی) and "Trih"(ترِیہہ) for "Tih" (تِیہہ), for the numbers 11, 23, 25, and 30.
English
Pahari-Pothwari and Punjabi
Numbers
Numerals
Transliteration
Shahmukhi
Numerals
One
1
ikk
اِکّ
۱
Two
2
do
دو
۲
Three
3
trai
ترَے
۳
Four
4
chār
چار
۴
Five
5
panj
پَنج
۵
Six
6
che
چھے
۶
Seven
7
satt
سَتّ
۷
Eight
8
aṭṭh
اَٹّھ
۸
Nine
9
nau
نَو
۹
Ten
10
das
دَس
۱۰
Ordinals
The ordinal numbers are largely the same. The only difference occurs in the words for Second and Third. Second is Doowa (دووا) in Pothwari, whilst it is Dooja (دوجا) in Punjabi. Likewise Third is Treeya (تریا) in Pothwari whilst it is Teeja (تیجا) in Punjabi. Western Punjabi in general tends to follow this trend.
English
Pahari-Pothwari
Standard Punjabi
Jatki
Ordinals
Shahmukhi
Transliteration
Shahmukhi
Transliteration
Shahmukhi
Transliteration
First
پہلا
Pehla
پہلا
Pehla
پہلا
Pehla
Second
دووا
Dūwā
دوجا
Dūjjā
دووا / دُوجا
Dūwā / Dūjjā
Third
تریا
Triyā
تیجا
Tījjā
ترِجیا
Trījjā
Fourth
چوتھا
Chottha
چوتھا
Chottha
چوتھا
Chottha
Direct case in Pahari-Pothwari
The direct case endings in Pahari-Pothwari remain the same as Standard Punjabi however the Direct pronouns differ.
english
Pahari-Pothwari
Pronouns
Transliteration
Shahmukhi
Gurumukhi
I
mẽ
مَیں
ਮੈਂ
We
asā̃
اَساں
ਅਸਾਂ
You
tū̃
تُوں
ਤੂੰ
You(plural)
tusā̃
تُساں
ਤੁਸਾਂ
The oblique/ergative case
Oblique case endings remain the same between Pahari-Pothwari and Standard Punjabi however Oblique/Ergative pronouns are not used in Pahari-Pothwari.
Vocative, Locative and Instrumental case in Punjabi
These cases remain the same between Pahari-Pothwari and Standard Punjabi.
Dative and definite object marker
The dative and definite object marker in Pothwari is kī (ਕੀ /کی) as opposed to nū̃ (ਨੂੰ / نوں) in Standard Punjabi.
For example:
The phrase: lokkā̃ nū̃ (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਨੂੰ / لوکاں نوں), meaning "to the people" in Standard Punjabi, would become lokkā̃ kī (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਕੀ / لوکاں کی) in Pothwari.
Hence, the personal pronouns would be as follows:
English
Pahari-Pothwari
Standard Punjabi
Shahmukhi
Gurmukhi
Shahmukhi
Gurmukhi
To me
میکی
ਮਿਕੀ
مَینُوں
ਮੈਨੂੰ
To you (sing.)
تُکی
ਤੁਕੀ
تَینُوں
ਤੈਨੂੰ
To you (plural.)
تُساں کی
ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕੀ
تُہانُوں
ਤੁਹਾਨੂੰ
To us
اساں کی
ਅਸਾਂ ਕੀ
سانُوں
ਸਾਨੂੰ
To him/her
اُس کی
ਉਸ ਕੀ
اوہنُوں
ਓਹਨੂੰ
Genitive marker
The genitive marker in Pahari-Pothwari is represented through the use of nā (ਨਾ / نا) as opposed to dā (ਦਾ / دا).[53]
For example:
The phrase: lokkā̃ dā (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਦਾ / لوکاں دا), meaning "people's" or "of the people" in Pahari-Pothwari, would become lokkā̃ nā (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਨਾ / لوکاں نا).
This also affects some of the possessive pronouns as described above.
It should also be noted that in Pahari-Pothwari, the present form of verb does not end with the standard dā sound either, and is replaced with nā.
For example:
Miki eh nahi si chāhinā (میکی ایہہ نہیں سی چاہی نا), meaning "This is not what I wanted"
Oh kay pyā ākhnā ae? (اوہ کے پیا آکھنا اے؟), meaning "What is he saying?"
This also affects the common Punjabi passive tense:
Isrā̃ nahi ākhee nā (اِسراں نہیں آکھی نا), instead of "ākhee dā", meaning "This is now how it should be said"
Pahari-Pothwari causative verbs end with -ālnā.[56]
English
Pahari-Pothwari
Standard Punjabi
Jatki
To cause to eat
کھوالنا
کھواؤنا / کھوانا
کھواونا
To cause to drink
پیالنا
پیانا / پیاؤنا
پِواوَنا
To cause to bathe
نہوالنا
نہوانا / نہواؤنا
نہواوَنا
To cause to wash
دھووانا
دھووانا / دھوواؤنا
دھوواوَنا
To cause to cry
رووالنا
رووانا / روواؤنا
روواوَنا
To cause to sleep
سوالنا
سواؤنا / سوانا
سواوَنا
To cause to sit
بہالنا
بہاؤنا / بہانا
بہاوَنا
To cause to stand
اُٹھالنا
اُٹھاوَنا / اُٹھانا
اُٹھاوَنا
*notes
Not all causative verbs are formed like this to play-Kherna to kharāna
Words used for "Taking" and "Bringing"
Commonly observed in the Lahnda dialects is the use of Ghinṇā (گھِننا)[57][58] and Aaṇnā (آننا)[59][60] instead of the Eastern Punjabi words Laiṇā (لَینا) and Lyāṇā (لیانا).
Notice how Ghin āo becomes Ghini achho, and Ghin ghidā becomes Ghini ghidā in accordance with Pothwari grammar and vocabulary.
Pahari-Pothwari generally follows the common Punjabi irregular verbs (e.g. khādhā, peetā, nahātā, dhotā, moyā, latthā, khalotā, ḍaṭṭhā, suttā, keetā, dittā, ghidā, seetā, baddhā).
Some additional forms are observed in bantā (بنتا) for banyā and khaltā (کھلتا) for khalā.
For example:
Miki sarkay apar khaltyon addhā ghantā hoi gya sā
Menu sark tey khalyā̃/khlotyā̃ addhā ghantā ho gya si
(It had been an hour since I was waiting on the road)
Chā kadon ni banti hoi ae
Chā kadon di bani hoi ae
(The tea has been ready for quite some time)
Interrogative words
English
Pahari-Pothwari
Jatki
Standard
Why
کِیاں
ਕੀਆਂ
کیوں
ਕਿਓਂ
کیوں
ਕਿਓਂ
Where
کُتھّے / کُدھّر
ਕੁੱਥੇ / ਕੁੱਧਰ
کِتھّے / کِدّے
ਕਿੱਥੇ / ਕਿੱਦੇ
کِتھّے
ਕਿੱਥੇ
Who
کُن
ਕੁਣ
کَون
ਕੌਣ
کَون
ਕੌਣ
What?
کے؟
ਕੇ
کے / کیہ
ਕੇ / ਕੀ
کیہ
ਕੀ
Pahari-Pothwari vocabulary similarities with other Western Punjabi dialects
English
Pahari-Pothwari
Jatki
Hindko
Saraiki
Very / Much
بہُوں
بہُوں
بہُوں
بہُوں
Go to sleep
سئی گو
سَیں ونج
سَیں جُل
سم ونج
Alright / Okay
ہلا
ہلا
ہلا
ہلا
Boy
جاتک
جاتک / چھوہر
جندک
چھُوہر
What is his name?
کے ناں اُس؟
کیہ/کے ناں اُس؟
کے ناں اُس؟
کیا ناں اُس؟
Take
گھِنو
لَوو (جھنگوچی/شاہپُوری)
گھِنو (دھنی)
گھِنو
گھِنو
Bring
آنو
لیاوو (جھنگوچی/شاہپُوری)
آنو (دھنی)
آنو
آنو
He speaks like us
اوہ اساں آر بولنا اے
اوہ ساڈے آر بولیندا اے
اوہ اساں آر بولدا اے
اوہ ساڈے آر الیندا اے
Let's go
آ جُلِیئے
آ چلِیئے/جُلِیے
آ جُلاں
آ جُلُوں
Lift/Raise
چاؤ
چاوو
چاؤ
چاوو
Life
حیاتی
حیاتی
حیاتی
حیاتی
*note
for boy murra is generally preferred
Notes
^Baart (2003, p. 10) provides an estimate of 3.8 million, presumably for the population in Pakistan alone. Lothers & Lothers (2010, p. 9) estimate the Pakistani population at well over 2.5 million and the UK diaspora at over 0.5 million. The population in India is reported in Ethnologue (2017) to be about 1 million as of 2000.
^There is no consensus among linguists or Pahari-Pothwari speakers in terms of its status as a dialect of Punjabi or a separate language entirely. For the difficulties in assigning the labels "language" and "dialect", see Shackle (1979) for Punjabi and Masica (1991, pp. 23–27) for Indo-Aryan generally.
^According to Lothers & Lothers (2010, p. 2). Abbasi (2010, p. 104) adds as a fourth dialect the Poonchi spoken from Poonch to the Neelam Valley. Yet another classification is reportedly presented in Karnai (2007).
^One language activist from the diaspora in Britain "[has] said that he does not give the language a single name because those who speak the language call it many different things." (Lothers & Lothers 2012, p. 3).
^Some, at least in the British diaspora, consider this term to be a misnomer if applied to the language. (Lothers & Lothers 2012, p. 3).
^The similarity between wordlists containing 217 items of basic vocabulary from each location. (Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 15–16)
^Shackle 1979, p. 201: Pothohari "is often so close to Panjabi that any attempt to maintain the Lahndi scheme ought probably to reckon it as 'Lahndi merging into Panjabi'."
^Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 40, 126–27. The speakers of Pahari in Abbottabad District regard the Hindko of the city of Abbottabad as a different language.
^Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 26; Akhtar & Rehman 2007, p. 68. The conclusion is similarly based on lexical similarity and the comparison is with the Hindko of the Kaghan Valley on one hand and with the Pahari of the Murre Hills on the other.
^ abcKogan, Anton I. (2011). Potxoxari Jazyk. Tatiana I. Oranskaya and Yulia V. Mazurova and Andrej A. Kibrik and Leonid I. Kulikov and Aleksandr Y. Rusakov (eds.), Jazyki Mira: Novye Indoarijskie Jazyki: Moskva: Academia. pp. 516–527.
^Khan, Abdul Qadir (2013). A Preliminary Study of Pahari Language and its Sound System. pp. 1–20.
^Bailey, Thomas Grahame (2013). Languages of the Northern Himalayas: Being Studies In The Grammar Of Twenty-Six Himalayan Dialects. Cambridge University Press.
^J. Wilson. Western Punjabi ( Shahpur District). p. 1"the genitive postposition (of) is nā instead of dā...These characteristics are also found in the dialects spoken In the western tehsils of the Rawalpindi District as far north as Attack, and probably in the intervening tahsils of the Jehlam District"{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^J. Wilson. Western Punjabi ( Shahpur District). p. 9. In the dialect of the Salt Range many nouns, and especialy monosyllables ending in a consonant, to form the absolute singular, add to the absolute form an e if masculine, and an i or u if feminine.
1981 District Census Report of Rawalpindi. Vol. 44. Islamabad: Population Census Organization, Statistics Division, Government of Pakistan. 1984. p. 95.
Akhtar, Raja Nasim; Rehman, Khawaja A. (2007). "The Languages of the Neelam Valley". Kashmir Journal of Language Research. 10 (1): 65–84. ISSN1028-6640.
Bhat, Javeed Ahmad (2014). Politics of Reservations: A Comparative Study of Gujjars and Paharis of Jammu and Kashmir (PhD). Aligarh Muslim University. hdl:10603/167183.
Grierson, George A. (1919). Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. VIII, Part 1, Indo-Aryan family. North-western group. Specimens of Sindhī and Lahndā. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India.
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