The Irish Film Classification Office (IFCO) (Irish: Oifig Aicmithe Scannán na hÉireann, OASÉ) is the organisation responsible for films, television programmes, and some video game classification and censorship within Ireland. Where restrictions are placed by the IFCO, they are legally binding.
Prior to 21 July 2008, the office was branded as the Irish Film Censor's Office, and was previously known as simply the Film Censor's Office, or, in legal references, the office of the Official Censor of Films, which was the official title of the head of the office prior to that date. The head of the office is the Director of Film Classification.
Background
1965 envelope sent to local office of 20th Century Fox with certifying cachet of the Film Censor's Office
The Irish Film Censor's Office was set up in 1923, under the Censorship of Films Act 1923.[1] This law was amended in 1925, 1930, 1970, and 1992; and a substantial revision of the law occurred in the Video Recordings Act, 1989 which extended the remit of the office to the regulation of the video importation and supply industry. On 21 July 2008 the Civil Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2008 came into force. Section 70 changes some of the provisions with regard censorship of films in the State. Section 71 renames the Film Censor as the Director of Film Classification and consequent to this, the Irish Film Censor's Office became the Irish Film Classification Office.
Staff
The office consists of 21 staff members:
Acting Director of Film Classification – George Sinclair
The 10 assistant classifiers are paid €168 per day and are entitled to claim expenses on top of this. According to a freedom of information request granted to the Irish edition of the Sunday Times the assistant classifiers claimed €306,683 in fees and €52,569 of expenses in 2007; €339,608 in fees and €49,898 of expenses in 2008; and €162,263 in fees and €21,401 of expenses for the first half of 2009. This equates to a payment of approximately €60 per film rated.[2]
Certificates
Introduction and early history
Before 1965, there were no certificates and all films were tailored for a general audience, resulting in several bans and cuts (no doubt also due to extremely conservative societal standards). As of 2004, 2,500 theatrical films had been banned and about 11,000 cut, largely from before the overhaul.[3]
Public controversy over the office's harsh methods came to a head in late 1964 – in 1963 alone, 31 films were rejected and 156 were cut.[4] Critically acclaimed hits were no exception – Dr. Strangelove was cut, including Ripper's reference to Communists trying to "sap and impurify all of our precious bodily fluids" with fluoridated water, and Irish-shot medical drama Of Human Bondage was banned due to the heroine dying of syphilis.[5] Even after the ban was overturned the following year,[6] it still received an over-18's certificate[7] with cuts[8][9] – nude sculptures made by Auguste Rodin were removed from the background of the title sequence.[10]
In 1964, Brian Lenihan, the newly appointed Minister for Justice, met with the Cinema and Theatre Association in November to consider their views[11] and even proposed to view recently banned films, including Of Human Bondage.[12][13] On 28 November, Lenihan announced he'd be appointing a new Film Appeals Board and would be able to reform censorship without changing existing legislation[12] – film correspondent Fergus Linehan pointed out that the 1923 Act explicitly supported age certification:[5]
If the Official Censor is of opinion that any picture in respect of which an application is made to him under this section is not fit for general exhibition in public but is fit for exhibition in public in certain places in Saorstát Eireann or under special conditions or in the presence of certain classes of persons, he shall grant a certificate that such picture is fit for exhibition in public subject to such restrictions and conditions (which shall be expressed on the certificate) in regard to the places at which or the special conditions under which the picture may be exhibited or the classes of persons who may be admitted to an exhibition of the picture as in the opinion of the Official Censor are necessary to prevent the exhibition of the picture in public being subversive of public morality.
Censorship of Films Act 1923, Section 7, Part 3
Lenihan announced the new Appeals board in January 1965, which came into effect on 18 January.[14] Their main task was to begin enforcing limited certificates (alongside the general certificate).[15] which were as follows, according to the Appeals Board chairman:[16]
Over 16
Over 18
Young persons under 12 years of age must be accompanied by an adult
An official cinema certificate from 1999, which would've directly preceded the film.[19]
The current cinematic certificates were announced in December 2004 at the European Conference of Film Classifiers in Paris and introduced on 1 January 2005.[20] In November 2005, a public campaign was launched to raise awareness of them, including booklets, posters, stickers and an animated certificate produced by Brown Bag Films which drew attention to their relatively new website.[21][22][23][24]
G – General: Suitable for all
PG – Parental Guidance: Suitable for children aged eight and older; parents are advised to accompany younger children.
12A – Minimum age for admission is 12, but younger children can be admitted if accompanied by an adult (12PG between 1 June 2001 – 1 January 2005).
15A – Minimum age for admission is 15, but younger children can be admitted if accompanied by an adult (15PG between 1 June 2001 – 1 January 2005).
16 – Minimum age for admission is 16; younger viewers will not be admitted under any circumstance (introduced on 1 January 2005).
18 – Minimum age for admission is 18; younger viewers will not be admitted under any circumstance.
12RA – Fit for viewing by persons generally, but in the case of a child under 12 years, only in the company of a responsible adult.
15 – Fit for viewing by persons aged 15 or more.
18 – Fit for viewing by persons aged 18 or more.
From that date it was an offence to trade uncertified videos, which carried fines of up to £1000 and a maximum sentence of three years.[26] Additional rates came in at £180 per rental title, £80 per sale title and £20 per advert/trailer. This limited the market, especially for London distributors whose releases previously went to Ireland automatically.[27]
In 1996, the 12RA certificate was officially replaced by PG and 12,[28] although releases still used it into the 2000s.[29]
The current certificates for home video formats such as DVD and Blu-ray that are issued are:
G – General: Suitable for all
PG – Suitable for general viewing, but parents are advised to watch with children younger than 12 years old.
12 – Suitable for people aged 12 and over, and not to be supplied to someone below that age.
15 – Suitable for people aged 15 and over, and not to be supplied to someone below that age.
18 – Suitable for people aged 18 and over, and not to be supplied to someone below that age.
A retired certificate only used on home video is:
12RA (no longer issued) Not suitable for people aged younger than 12 unless they view with an adult, and not to be supplied to someone below that age. The "RA" stands for "Responsible Adult". Retired around 2003 (officially replaced in 1996).[30][29]
Standard cinematic-home video certification crossover
This is the crossover, or change, in a certificate that will happen when a film which has been shown in cinemas, is released on home video, but this only applies if:
There is no extra material (bonuses, trailers, etc.) which is not appropriate to the main feature, and would cause it to receive a higher certificate.
The film has not been edited (material taken out, etc.) in a way which would cause the main feature to receive a lower certificate.
The standard crossovers are as follows:
Cinema certificate
Home video certificate
G
G
PG
PG
12A
12
15A
15
16
15/18
18
18
Note: The certificate "12RA" did not have a corresponding cinematic certificate, and thus, did not have a standard crossover (certain 12A films received the certificate before it was withdrawn in the mid-2000s).
If the two rules above apply to a film's home video release, then, generally, it will be re-rated completely, but this does not mean certificates will always coincide for all formats, as occasionally (usually the DVD or Blu-ray) one edition will contain extra features while the other does not, causing one to be re-rated, and the other to take a Standard Crossover (for instance, a film which received a 15A certificate in cinemas may have received a 15 certificate on VHS but an 18 certificate on DVD; usually DVDs in these circumstances would carry a label on the reverse, informing viewers of this).
Home video
A censor's stamp on a 2004 DVD
Until February 2009, the home video certificates were always the certificate surrounded by an octagon, followed by the words "FILM CENSOR'S OFFICE" and "OIFIG SCRÚDÓIR NA SCANNÁN", which were then surrounded by another, larger, octagon. The colours were cyan and white, but the order they appear in varied. Although the Office was renamed in July 2008, these continued to bear the old name until February 2009, when they were altered to read "IRISH FILM CLASSIFICATION OFFICE" and its Irish equivalent.
Video games
Unlike the BBFC in the UK, which prior to PEGI ratings becoming legally enforceable in the UK on 30 July 2012 rated video games that met certain criteria (such as very graphic violence), the Irish Film Censor's Office does not usually rate video games, leaving ratings to PEGI, unless the game's content is deemed prohibitable under section 3 (1) of the Act.
IFCO ratings for video games were introduced in 2001 and retired in 2003. Although the Silent Hill Collection was released in 2006, it contained re-releases of the second and third games, which were rated and released in 2001 and 2003 respectively.
Only 9 games have ever been submitted to and rated by the IFCO:
Despite the lack of legally binding ratings, most (if not all) video game retailers attempt to prohibit the sale of PEGI 18+ rated games to people under the age of 18, and prior to PEGI ratings the same was done with BBFC 18 ratings on games (the same packaging is usually used in games sold in Ireland as in the UK).
The only prohibition notice for a video game was issued for Manhunt 2 in 2007.[33]
Appeals
All decisions made with regard to certification, may be appealed for up to 6 months after the certificate is initially issued. An appeal is issued to the Classification of Films Appeal Board.
Works may also be submitted for re-classification after seven years since the original certification have passed (not an appeal per se, but rather seen as an update of classification based on current standards).
The most recent example of a (failed) appeal is The First Purge, which received an 18 certificate for strong bloody violence, sustained threat and disturbing scenes.[34] The distributor (Universal Pictures) argued the case for a 16 certificate:
We would contend that the last two films in the franchise, in particular, are similar in tone and viscerality to the current film.A
The First Purge is a thematic continuation of how a group of people must fight to survive a night of government-sanctioned mayhem. Similar to Anarchy and Election Year, The First Purge features intensely depicted violence and some gory imagery but has contextual justification. There are sustained scenes of threat in which the characters are terrorised by masked killers but the guidelines for a 16 classification on the IFCO suggest that strong horror and sustained threat may be acceptable in this category.
The violence is presented in an extremely stylised way in an equivalent manner to the earlier films in the franchise as well as similar titles like Atomic Blonde (16), John Wick (16) and John Wick: Chapter 2 (16).
Direct correspondence between Universal Pictures and the IFCO
A.^The Purge: Anarchy and The Purge: Election Year both received 16 certificates, for "frequent strong bloody violence, disturbing sequences, strong threat of sexual violence"[35] and "strong bloody violence throughout"[36] respectively. The distributor also mentioned the film's 15 certificate in the UK,[37] which is consistent throughout the franchise.[38]
After first being viewed on 15 June, it was re-viewed on 21 June when the Appeal Board stuck by the original decision.
Ger Connolly wrote back, explaining the decision in greater detail:
This is the fourth film of this particular franchise. As can sometimes be the case with long-running horror franchises, in evolution they become more violent and explicit to maintain the interest of their audience. This is, in my opinion, the case with The Purge series of films. The first instalment, essentially a 'home invasion' thriller, was classified 15A. The next two (The Purge: Anarchy and The Purge: Election Year) broadened out the story and intensified in terms of body count and the graphic way in which some of the violence was depicted. Both were classified 16 on cinema release. The Purge: Election Year was classified 18 on DVD release. In most cases films classified 16 theatrically are classified 15 on DVD release. This classification is more restrictive than 15A. In rarer cases the DVD classification is increased to 18 to reflect the level of content.
The First Purge intensifies the extremely graphic violence – the violence here is brutal and sustained. It also contained a scene of sexual assault as well as scenes of very overt brutal racist violence against African Americans with the attackers in full Ku Klux Klan regalia. These were not present in the other instalments.
I suggest that the context here is not sufficient to warrant a 16 classification due to the extremely brutal and frenzied acts of violence combined with racial hatred and that The First Purge is appropriately classified at 18.
Ger Connolly, in direct correspondence with Universal Pictures
"Very, very violent" and "an evil influence for young audiences" according to head censor Sheamus Smith.
A spokesperson for Columbia TriStar said, "The first two Karate Kid films had 'under 12' certificates here and the new one has similar certificates in Britain and America. The films are very popular with young audiences".
The appeal viewing took place on 26 July and the decision, which was decided by a 4:1 ratio, pushed the release date back from mid-July to 4 August.[40]
Smith objected to the opening, showing sperm swimming in a womb, followed by the mother disclosing an affair with her married boss and that she was artificially inseminated.
After the uncut version received an 18 certificate, Warner Bros. submitted the cut British version, and although Smith initially gave it an 18 too, his decision was overturned.
The appeal viewing took place on 16 February.[60][61]
The British version was cut by 55s to reduce scenes of torture and sexual violence involving a female prisoner, which "left the emphasis on the tragic implications rather than the infliction of pain and degradation", and lowered the certificate from 18 to 15.[62]
Films may be refused a certificate, e.g. on grounds of obscenity. Such films may not be shown in public cinemas or sold in shops, but are not ipso facto banned and have been shown at film festivals and art house clubs such as the Irish Film Theatre and Irish Film Institute. These may also show films which have not been submitted for certification, as the submission fee may be prohibitive if a film is screened only a few times at a small venue.
Prohibitions and revocations, with justification, are listed in the official gazette, Iris Oifigiúil, under the headings of PROHIBITION ORDER and REVOCATION ORDER.
Despite the recommendations in the 2000 review of certification that no further films be banned, bans are still occasionally issued, although usually overturned on appeal. Boy Eats Girl, a 2005 movie, was initially banned, with the option of a cut being provided to the producers. On appeal, the film was passed uncut, and granted a 15A rating,[87] although the video certificate was raised to 18.[88]
Movies which are never submitted for cinema release in Ireland are occasionally banned on attempted video releases, although only one such order was made in 2004, banning the pornographic Anabolic Initiations 5, with the appeals board upholding the censor's order. One order was issued in 2005, reiterating the ban on Deep Throat. The only order in 2006 banned the pornographic film Steal Runaway.
Like many systems of entertainment classification, the IFCO has received criticism for several decisions they have made in the past. The board has been described as too zealous and conservative. Many titles that receive 15 certificates from the BBFC are rated 18 by the IFCO. DVD examples include Kick-Ass[89] and Black Swan.[90] Rarer cinema examples (which bypass the 16 rating) include Free Fire[82] and You Were Never Really Here.[91]
However, the IFCO are more lenient with strong language than the BBFC are, especially with very strong language (e.g. 'cunt'). Examples include Frost/Nixon and The Visitor receiving 15 certificates in the UK[92][93] but PG's in Ireland[94][95] despite the use of the stronger term 'motherfucker', and Gone Girl receiving an 18 in the UK[96] but a 15 (on video) in Ireland[97] despite four aggressive uses of 'cunt'. The 2014 documentary Red Army received a 15 in the UK[98] but a 12A in Ireland[99] for a single use of 'cocksucker' (although the video rating was upgraded to 15).[100]
The IFCO is established on a statutory basis and thus the appeals procedure is final. Where a film or video game is banned, there can be no further appeal, but the work may be resubmitted after seven years.
^Video Recordings Act 1989 (Supply Certificate and Labelling) Regulations 1994 (S.I. No. 134 of 1994). Signed on 12 May 1994. Statutory Instrument of the Government of Ireland. Archived from the original on 9 February 2019. Retrieved from Irish Statute Book on 9 February 2019.
^"New labels to show video's suitability". The Irish Times. 31 August 1994.
^Foley, Michael (27 February 1995). "Additional cost limits Ireland's video choice". The Irish Times.
^Video Recordings Act 1989 (Supply Certificate and Labelling) (Amendment) Regulations 1996 (S.I. No. 407 of 1996). Signed on 20 December 1996. Statutory Instrument of the Government of Ireland. Archived from the original on 9 February 2019. Retrieved from Irish Statute Book on 9 February 2019.
Rockett, Kevin (2004). Irish film censorship: a cultural journey from silent cinema to internet pornography. Dublin: Four Courts Press. ISBN1-85182-844-3.
Artikel ini perlu dikembangkan dari artikel terkait di Wikipedia bahasa Inggris. (Mei 2023) klik [tampil] untuk melihat petunjuk sebelum menerjemahkan. Lihat versi terjemahan mesin dari artikel bahasa Inggris. Terjemahan mesin Google adalah titik awal yang berguna untuk terjemahan, tapi penerjemah harus merevisi kesalahan yang diperlukan dan meyakinkan bahwa hasil terjemahan tersebut akurat, bukan hanya salin-tempel teks hasil terjemahan mesin ke dalam Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia. Jangan men…
Perguruan Athena, fresko karya pelukis Raffaello Sanzio di Vatikan, 1509-1510. Perguruan Athena (Italia: Scuola di Atenecode: it is deprecated ) adalah sebuah fresko karya Raffaello Sanzio yang menggambarkan para filsuf Abad Renaisans yang berdiri di dekat para ilmuwan Romawi dan Yunani Kuno. Pengantar Karya ini dilukis sekitar tahun 1510 oleh Raphael Sanzio di Vatikan di tembok barat Stanza Signatura, sebuah ruangan Kapel Sistina yang lebih dikenal. dan berukuran 500 cm × 770 cm Luki…
Untuk legenda, lihat Legenda Siluman Ular Putih. Legenda Ular PutihGenre Drama Roman Legenda PembuatSinemArtPengembangJulia StevannyDitulis olehJulia StevannySutradaraIndrayanto KurniawanPemeran Sahrul Gunawan Intan Nuraini Chacha Frederica Tetty Liz Indriati Yadi Timo Krisno Bossa Yoseph Ginting Pietrajaya Burnama Penggubah lagu temaBebiLagu pembukaLagu Tentang CintaLagu penutupLagu Tentang CintaNegara asalIndonesiaBahasa asliBahasa IndonesiaJmlh. musim1Jmlh. episode13ProduksiProduser eksekutif…
Artikel atau sebagian dari artikel ini mungkin diterjemahkan dari Nuclear holocaust di en.wikipedia.org. Isinya masih belum akurat, karena bagian yang diterjemahkan masih perlu diperhalus dan disempurnakan. Jika Anda menguasai bahasa aslinya, harap pertimbangkan untuk menelusuri referensinya dan menyempurnakan terjemahan ini. Anda juga dapat ikut bergotong royong pada ProyekWiki Perbaikan Terjemahan. (Pesan ini dapat dihapus jika terjemahan dirasa sudah cukup tepat. Lihat pula: panduan penerjema…
Pour les articles homonymes, voir ENIT et ENI. École nationale d’ingénieurs de Tarbes (ENIT)Logo de l'ENIT.Entrée et bâtiment administratif de l'ENIT.HistoireFondation 1963StatutType École d'ingénieurs (EPCSCP)Forme juridique Autre établissement public national d'enseignement (d)Directeur Jean-Yves FourquetDevise « Concevons l'avenir. »Membre de CGE, CDEFI, groupe ENI, UTTOP, université de Toulouse, Geipi Polytech, Toulouse Tech, Aerospace Valley, « Elles Bougent …
John Baldacci 73º Governatore del MaineDurata mandato8 gennaio 2003 - 5 gennaio 2011 PredecessoreAngus King SuccessorePaul LePage Membro della Camera dei Rappresentanti - Maine, distretto n.2Durata mandato3 gennaio 1995 – 3 gennaio 2003 PredecessoreOlympia Snowe SuccessoreMike Michaud Dati generaliPartito politicoDemocratico Firma John Elias Baldacci (Bangor, 30 gennaio 1955) è un politico statunitense, è stato Governatore del Maine. Appartenente al Partito Democratico, è st…
American lawyer Not to be confused with his older brother Philip Hamilton, or with Phillip Hamilton, an author and historian. Philip HamiltonHamilton in 1880Born(1802-06-02)June 2, 1802New York City, New York, U.S.DiedJuly 9, 1884(1884-07-09) (aged 82)Poughkeepsie, New York, U.S.Burial placePoughkeepsie Rural CemeteryNationalityAmericanOccupationLawyerSpouseRebecca McLaneChildrenLouisAllanParent(s)Alexander Hamilton (father)Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton (mother)RelativesSee Hamilton family Ph…
Liste des universités écossaise par ordre d'ancienneté. Université de St Andrews à Saint Andrews (fondée en 1413) Université de Glasgow à Glasgow (fondée en 1451) Université d'Aberdeen à Aberdeen (fondée en 1495) Université d'Édimbourg à Édimbourg (fondée en 1583) Université de Strathclyde à Glasgow (fondée en 1796, devenue université en 1964) Université Heriot-Watt à Édimbourg (fondée en 1821, devenue université en 1966) Université de Dundee à Dundee (fondée en 1882…
منضدة طعام لشخصين. الأثاث (المفرد: أَثَاثَة) هو ما يحتاجه المنزل لكي يصبح مكانًا مناسبًا للعيش الإنساني، بحيث يوفر وسائل الراحة التي يحتاجها الإنسان في حياته اليومية.[1] يصنع الأثاث أساسًا من الخشب بالإضافة إلى المعادن وحديثًا استخدم البلاستيك في كثير من لوازم المنزل مثل…
Roy W. Hill(left to right) Alex Dreier, Bob Hope, Anne T. Hill, Geraldine Dreier, Roy W. Hill at a fund raiser for Eisenhower Medical CenterBornDecember 1, 1899Los Angeles, CaliforniaDiedFebruary 14, 1986(1986-02-14) (aged 86)Rancho Mirage, CaliforniaNationalityAmericanOccupation(s)automobile dealerhospital trusteephilanthropistKnown fortrustee and benefactor of Eisenhower Medical CenterSpouse(s)Madeleine M. Hill (married 1924, divorced)Faye D Maxwell (1942–1969, divorced)Anne T. Hil…
Nichiren (日蓮)Lukisan Nichiren, disimpan di Kuil Kuon-ji, Gunung Minobu. GelarPendiri Buddha NichirenInformasi pribadiLahir16 Februari 1222Meninggal13 Oktober 1282 (usia 60)KebangsaanJepangMazhabMahayana, NichirenKedudukan seniorLokasiJepangSitus webhttp://www.lotus-happiness.com/10-inspirational-quotes-nichiren-daishonin/ Nichiren (日蓮) (16 Februari 1222 – 13 Oktober 1282) adalah seorang biksu Buddha yang hidup selama periode Kamakura (1185–1333) di Jepang. Kehidupan Bagian dari seri …
Friedrich GuggenbergerBorn(1915-03-06)6 March 1915Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria, German EmpireDied13 May 1988(1988-05-13) (aged 73)Erlenbach am Main, West GermanyAllegiance Nazi Germany West GermanyService/branch Kriegsmarine German NavyYears of service1934–45 (Kriegsmarine)1956–72 (Bundesmarine)RankKonteradmiralCommands heldU-28U-81U-847U-513Battles/warsWorld War II Battle of the Atlantic Great Papago Escape AwardsKnight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves F…
Social interaction aiming at inflicting harm or unpleasantness Aggressive and Aggressive behavior redirect here. For other uses, see Aggressive (disambiguation), Aggression (disambiguation), and Aggressive Behavior (journal). Depiction of French President Armand Fallieres's assault by a waiter named Jean Mattis Many mammals, such as the tiger, bare their teeth as a sign of aggression; a form of aposematism. Aggression is a behavior aimed at opposing or attacking something or someone. Though ofte…
Administrative division of Taiwan under Japanese rule Taihoku Prefecture臺北州Taihoku-shū1920-1952Taihoku Prefecture government building(now the Control Yuan building)CapitalTaihoku CityArea • 19414,594.24 km2 (1,773.85 sq mi)Population • 1941 1,140,530 Historical eraTaiwan under Japanese rule• Established September 1920• Kīrun upgraded to city 1924• Gilan upgraded to city 1940• Disestablished October 25 1945• Japanes…
Family of birds Cinclosomatidae Spotted quail-thrush (Cinclosoma punctatum) Scientific classification Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Passeriformes Infraorder: Corvides Family: CinclosomatidaeMathews, 1921 Genera See list below Cinclosomatidae is a family of passerine birds native to Australia and New Guinea. It has a complicated taxonomic history and different authors vary in which birds they include in the family. It includes the quail-thrushes and jewel…
Russian separatist paramilitary battalion in Donbas This article needs to be updated. The reason given is: It is unclear if the battalion still exists following the annexation of the Donetsk People's Republic by Russia. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (October 2022) Sparta BattalionБатальон «Спарта»Service sleeve insignia of the Sparta BattalionActive2014 – presentAllegiance Russia Donetsk People's Republic Bra…
Monte EpomeoIl monte Epomeo visto da ForioStato Italia Regione Campania Provincia Napoli Altezza789 m s.l.m. Prominenza789 m CatenaIsole Flegree Ultima eruzione1302 Coordinate40°43′49.17″N 13°53′39.94″E / 40.730324°N 13.894429°E40.730324; 13.894429Coordinate: 40°43′49.17″N 13°53′39.94″E / 40.730324°N 13.894429°E40.730324; 13.894429 Mappa di localizzazione Modifica dati su Wikidata · Manuale Il monte Epome…
This article is about the city and municipality. For the department, see Huehuetenango Department. Municipality in GuatemalaHuehuetenango XinabahulMunicipalityThe city center of HuehuetenangoNickname: HuehueHuehuetenangoLocation in GuatemalaCoordinates: 15°18′53″N 91°28′34″W / 15.31472°N 91.47611°W / 15.31472; -91.47611Country GuatemalaDepartment HuehuetenangoMunicipalityHuehuetenangoGovernment • MayorGeronimo Martinez[1] (Lidet)Area…
William GilbertWilliam GilbertBiographieNaissance 24 mai 1544ColchesterDécès 30 novembre 1603 (à 59 ans)LondresFormation St John's CollegeActivités Philosophe, physicien, astronome, ingénieur, médecin, naturalistePère Jerome Gilberd (d)Mère Jane Wingfield (d)Fratrie William Gilbert (d)modifier - modifier le code - modifier Wikidata William Gilbert (ou William Gylberde), né le 24 mai 1544, à Colchester, en Angleterre, mort de la peste bubonique le 30 novembre 1603 (10 décembre dan…
Cortejo hacia el Castillo de Hambach, litografía de 1832, con la futura bandera de Alemania al contrario El Festival de Hambach fue un festival nacional democrático alemán — disfrazado de feria local no política — celebrado entre el 27 y el 30 de mayo de 1832 en el Castillo de Hambach, cerca de Neustadt an der Weinstraße, actual Renania-Palatinado, Alemania. Fue una de las primeras manifestaciones públicas de apoyo a la unidad alemana, libertad y democracia durante el período Vormärz…