Born in Warsaw into a noble family, he spent much of his youth with his maternal grandparents in Romanów and completed his education in various cities, including Vilna. Kraszewski's literary career began in 1830, and he became an influential writer and journalist. Despite facing political challenges and imprisonment for his involvement in the November Uprising, he continued to support Polish independence. He spent his later years in Dresden, where he remained active in political and literary circles until his death in Geneva.
Kraszewski wrote over 200 novels and several hundred novellas, short stories, and art reviews, making him the most prolific writer in the history of Polish literature and one of the most prolific in world literature. He is best known for his historical novels, including an epic series on the history of Poland, comprising twenty-nine historical novels; and for novels about peasant life, critical of feudalism and serfdom. His works have been described as liberal-democratic but not radical, and as proto-Positivist.
Józef Ignacy Kraszewski spent much of his youth in the house of his maternal grandparents in Romanów. His grandmother influenced him during this time and taught him French, history, and drawing.[3]: 222
Beginning in 1829, he studied medicine at University of Vilnius; soon after, he transferred to the Faculty of Literature and Fine Arts.[1][3]: 222 1830 marked his literary debut with several short stories ("Biografia sokalskiego organisty [pl]", "Kotlety. Powieść prawdziwa", and "Wieczór, czyli przypadki peruki"), followed a year later with his first novel (Pan Walery [pl]).[6][2][3]: 222 [5]: 259
In 1836 Kraszewski was nominated to join the faculty of Kiev University as professor of Polish language, but the nomination was vetoed by the Russian government, which considered him politically suspect.[1][3]: 222 [5]: 259 In 1851 he was offered a professorship at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, but this was again vetoed by the authorities, this time both Russian and Austrian.[1][3]: 223
In 1837 Kraszewski leased a farm in the village of Omelno [pl].[1][3]: 222 Eventually he also became a landowner in several nearby villages: Gródek [pl], 1840–1848; Hubin [pl], from 1848; and Kisiele [pl], from 1854. As time passed, he steadily lost interest in farming and focused on his literary work.[1][3]: 222 By the 1840s he was becoming well known as a prolific writer, and his works appeared in numerous Polish-language magazines and newspapers.[1][3]: 223 [5]: 259
On 10 June 1838 he married Zofia Woroniczówna, niece of Jan Paweł Woronicz [pl], former Bishop of Warsaw. They had four children: Konstancja, born 1839; Jan, born 1841; Franciszek, born 1843; and Augusta, born 1849.[1][3]: 222, 227
Kraszewski travelled extensively, visiting and staying for extended periods in Warsaw (1846, 1851, 1855, 1859); in 1860 he bought a Warsaw townhouse, now known as the Kraszewski House [pl]), in Kiev (on numerous occasions), and in Odesa (1843, 1852).[3]: 222 [3]: 223 [5]: 259 Through the 1850s and 1860s he periodically travelled through Western Europe (visiting Italy, German and France, among other places), and published travel accounts from them: Kartki z podróży 1858–1864 (Letters from Travels, 1858–1864; 1866).[7] His most significant trip occurred in 1858, when he travelled to Western Europe, visiting Austria, Belgium, Italy, Germany, and France. In Italy he was received by Pope Pius IX, who admonished him for his alleged liberal bias. This, however, likely heightened Kraszewski's critical view of the Holy State. His travels in the West also made him impatient with the feudal relations – particularly, serfdom – in eastern Poland.[3]: 223 [7]
In 1853, in an effort to better support and educate his four children, Kraszewski moved to his wife Zofia's inherited family estate near Zhytomyr, where he became, from 1856, school superintendent and director of the local theatre (Teatr Szlachty Wołyńskiej, or Zhytomyr Theater).[8]: 256 [3]: 222 [5]: 259 At first popular with the local nobility, he became less so on account of his support for the abolition of serfdom.[3]: 222 [5]: 259
As a result, in February 1860 he moved to Warsaw to take up the editorship of Gazeta Polska [pl], a position he had accepted the previous year,[1][3]: 223 leaving his family in Zhytomyr. He grew increasingly distant from his wife, whom he would last see in 1863.[3]: 227
In 1861 he became a member of the Delegacja Miejska [pl], a patriotic civic organization based in Warsaw.[9] Kraszewski's political stance was fairly moderate; while supporting the cause of Polish independence, he saw armed struggle as premature, and initially supported conciliatory negotiations with Russian authorities represented by Aleksander Wielopolski.[3]: 224 [5]: 259 His moderate centrist attitude had alienated him from many; Kraszewski has described himself as "too red for the whites, too white for the reds".[3]: 225–226 [5]: 259 [10]: 160
As tensions grew, Kraszewski found it increasingly difficult to remain moderate, and started to increasingly criticize the Russian authorities. For his criticism of censorship in December 1862, the Russian authorities forced him to resign his editorship of Gazeta Polska [pl] and ordered him to leave Congress Poland. Following the eruption of the January 1863 Uprising, on 3 February 1863 he fled Warsaw.[1][3]: 224 [5]: 259
Saxony
Leaving the Russian partition, Kraszewski arrived in Dresden. His wife and children remained in the Russian partition, and he would support them financially for many years.[2][3]: 225 After his Russian passport expired, the Saxon authorities, in cooperation with the Russian embassy, attempted to declare him an illegal immigrant; to counter that, Kraszewski used a false French passport until he received Austrian citizenship in 1866.[3]: 225 [5]: 260
In Dresden he connected with other Polish refugees and supported the January 1863 Uprising and the cause of Polish independence in the European press (often pseudonymously, to avoid trouble with the Saxon government).[11][5]: 260 From 1870 to mid-1871, with his own funds, he published a weekly, Tydzień Polityczny, Naukowy, Literacki i Artystyczny, but eventually gave up on the endeavour due to financial difficulties.[1][3]: 225
Beginning in the 1870s, he increasingly suffered from health problems (kidney stone disease, asthma and bronchitis; some medical treatments for those included treatments with what would be today described as narcotics).[3]: 225
His application for Saxon citizenship was approved in 1869 and for a time he ran a printing press in Dresden.[3]: 225 In 1871 he briefly campaigned to be elected a deputy from the Poznań region, but withdrew facing a strong opposition from the Polish conservative-clergy circles that he opposed in his newspaper polemics. In politics he kept representing the weak moderate faction.[3]: 225–226
Despite his health problems, he kept travelling, often invited to give lectures and attending academic conferences.[5]: 260 In 1872 he became the member of the Academy of Learning.[11] In 1873 he decided to become a full-time writer, and this year alone he wrote ten novels and two academic texts.[2] He acquired a villa in Dresden.[3]: 225 In 1879 he celebrated the 50th anniversary of his literary career in several cities in Europe, including in Kraków in a large event (on 2 to 7 October) during which he received the honorary degrees from Jagiellonian University as well as the Lviv University.[1][2][3]: 225 In 1880 he attempted to travel to Warsaw but was denied permission by the Russian authorities.[1][3]: 225 In 1882 he helped to found the educational institution Macierz Polska [pl] in Lwów.[11][3]: 225
He lived in Saxony until 1883, when he was arrested, while visiting Berlin, and accused of working for the French secret service, for whom he indeed worked since c. 1870.[1][3]: 225 After being tried by the Reichsgericht in Leipzig in May 1884, he was sentenced to three and a half years imprisonment in Magdeburg (in the Magdeburg fortress [de]).[1][2] The case was seen as political, since Kraszewski was a vocal critic of German chancellor Otto von Bismarck, and Bismarck saw this as an opportunity to deal a blow to the Polish faction in Germany, even personally advocating a death sentence for the writer.[2][3]: 226 While in prison, he was given preferential treatment - he was allowed to write, paint, and receive guests. Due to poor health, high profile of the case covered in European press, and requests from clemency from Kraszewski's influential friends (such as prince Antoni Wilhelm Radziwiłł and king of Italy, Umberto I), he was released on bail after a year and a half in 1885.[1][2][3]: 226–227
Rather than remain in Magdeburg, as his bail required, he moved to a new home in Sanremo, Italy; where he hoped to recuperate in peace. This, however, violated the terms of his release and led to the German government issuance of an arrest warrant for him.[1][2] While in Sanremo, he witnessed the 1887 Liguria earthquake.[3]: 227 When the possibility of extradition arose, he decided to move to Lausanne, Switzerland, where he bought a new house; however, he never arrived in it - he died in Hôtel de la Paix [fr] in Geneva, from pneumonia, on 19 March 1887,[1][2][3]: 227 four days after his arrival there.[5]: 260 His remains were transferred to Kraków, and after a large funeral on 18 April 1887 he was interred at "Skałka" Basilica, in the Crypt of Merit [pl].[1][3]: 227 [5]: 260
Reception
Kraszewski is credited with over 600[1] or 700[8]: 256 works, including 223 novels, 20 dramas and many short stories.[1][3]: 227 [5]: 260–261 He is considered one of the most prolific Polish writers,[1] and arguably one of the most prolific writers worldwide,[8]: 256 [12]: 17 and one of the first Polish writers whose works were widely translated (several dozens of his works were translated into Russian, Czech, German, and French; about a dozen, to Serbo-Croatian; several, to English, Italian, Lithuanian and to various Scandinavian languages).[1][5]: 261 His novels, which were very popular even into the mid-20th[8]: 256–257 and early 21st century,[5]: 260 encouraged Polish literacy.[8]: 256–257 Many of his works were compulsory readings in Polish schools. As of 2010, he was the most prolific writer in Poland by the number of published editions of his works (almost 900 editions published in the years 1944–2010, with the most popular title being his Stara Baśń -An Ancient Tale, which received 78 editions).[13]: 41, 43, 89
Czesław Miłosz, 1980 Nobel laureate Polish poet, in his The History of Polish Literature (1969) described him as best exemplifying the genre of historical novel in Polish literature.[8]: 256 Miłosz further wrote that in Polish literature, Kraszewski founded the "new genre of fiction based upon documents and other sources where the faithful presentation of a given epoch is the main goal, and plot and characters are used simply as a bait for the readers". In popularizing Polish history, Miłosz drew a parallel between Kraszewski and Poland's foremost painter, Jan Matejko, whose works likewise focused on the history of Poland.[8]: 257
Works
Novels
Kraszewski is best known for his novels. Those could be divided into four major subgenres: historical novels, novels about the life of peasants, novels about the life of nobility and novels about artists.[3]: 223 Out of those four, critics most often mention his historical and peasant novels.[3]: 223 [8]: 256–257 [12]: 17 [11]
His "peasant" novels, critical of serfdom and feudalism, are also often mentioned among his important contributions. Miłosz called them his most popular works[8]: 257 and Wincenty Danek [pl] wrote that they are the works that have popularized his name.[3]: 223 That series includes nine novels, out of which the most important are Historia Sawki (The Story of Sawka, 1842), Ulana [pl] (1843), Ostap Bondarczuk (1847), Chata za Wsią (The Cottage Beyond the Village, 1854), Jermoła: obrazki wiejskie (Jermoła: Pictures from a Village, 1857) and Historja kołka w płocie (The Story of a Peg in a Fence, 1860).[8]: 257 [3]: 223–224 Danek also noted, referring to Historia Sawki, that Kraszewski's works were the first time Polish literature discussed the oppression of Ukrainian peasants by the Polish nobility.[3]: 224 Ulana in turn has been praised for its "bold and innovative analysis of the experiences of a peasant woman wronged by her lord".[11]
Danek also praised Kraszewski's novels about the life of nobility, calling them groundbreaking for their criticism of nobility. He cited Latarnia czarnoksięska [pl] (Magical Lighthouse, 1843–1844), Interesa familijne (Family Business, 1853), Złote Jabłko (Golden Apple, 1853), and Dwa światy (Two Worlds, 1855) as the most important novels with that theme.[3]: 224
Examples of his works about the life of artists and the place of art in the wider society include Poeta i świat [pl] (The Poet and the World, 1839),[14][15]Sfinks (Sphinx, 1842), Pamiętniki nieznajomego (Diaries of the Unknown, 1846), and Powieść bez tytułu (Novel without a Title, 1855). Some of those works are partly autobiographical.[3]: 223
While Danek described the above four subgenres as Kraszewski's major directions, he also noted that Kraszewski, a very prolific writer, wrote novels representing most if not all major contemporary genres: romances, adventures, comedies, satires, memoires and their pastiches, gawędas, crime novels, psychological novels, sensation novels, and others.[3]: 227–228
From the technical perspective, Danek noted that Kraszewski novels introduced elements of common speech to Polish literary language.[3]: 224, 228 With regards to Kraszewski's characters, Danek sees them as having relatively little psychological depth, but memorable due to vivid descriptions and mannerisms, and notes that Kraszewski was best at depicting strong female characters.[3]: 228
Other writings
Alongside novels, Kraszewski also wrote poetry, collected in Poezje (Poems, two volumes in 1838 and 1843), and Hymny boleści (Hymns of sorrow, 1857), as well as the lengthy poem-trilogy Anafielas [pl] (1843–1846). He also penned dramas, most notably the comedies Miód kasztelański [pl] (The Castellan's Honey, 1853) and Panie Kochanku (Mr. Lover, 1857). However, as noted by critics, Kraszewski was not particularly gifted in those dimensions.[3]: 224 [16]
While his works of fiction are the most enduring, his scholarly endeavours, primarily in the fields of history (particularly the history of Lithuania, and art history) and literary criticism, produced not only journal articles but a number of monogaphs (Wilno od początków jego do roku 1750, 1840–42; Litwa, starożytne dzieje, ustway, język, wiara, obyczaje, pieśni, 1848; Litwa starożytna, 1850; Dante, 1869; Polska w czasie trzech rozbiorów, 1873–1875; Krasicki, 1879); collected volumes of his articles (Studia literackie, 1842; Nowe studia literackie, 1843; Gawędy o literaturze i sztuce, 1857); and collections of primary materials (Pamiętniki Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego, 1870; Listy Jana Śniadeckiego, 1878; Listy Zygmunta Krasickiego, 1882–83).
He was also an editor, supervising publication of works by Kazimierz Brodziński (Pisma, 1872–1874) and translations of Shakespeare (Dzieła dramatyczne, 1875–1877).[3]: 224, 227–228
Other arts
While Kraszewski is best remembered as a writer, he was also an illustrator (he illustrated many of his works) and a painter (he displayed some of his paintings at local art exhibitions, and some were exhibited at others after his death).[1][3]: 227 He also played piano and composed music (Pastusze piosenki - Shephards songs,1845).[3]: 228
He was also a collector, amassing a substantial collection of Polish drawings and etchings, which he sold in 1869 due to financial difficulties.[3]: 227–228
A significant theme in his works was the criticism of feudal relationships, and a number of his novels featured peasant and female heroes.[8]: 257 [12]: 17 [11] His works have been described as leaning liberal-democratic,[11] but not radical.[8]: 257 Danek writes that Kraszewski supported the ideal of egalitarianism.[3]: 228 He often criticized nobility, particularly aristocracy, as unproductive and degenerative, and praised peasantry and the middle class.[3]: 226, 228
His attitude to religion changed over time. He became more religious after marriage, likely because his relatives and friends of that time included several prominent religious figures, such as bishops Jan Paweł Woronicz [pl] and Ignacy Hołowiński [pl] and priest Stanisław Chołoniewski [pl]). Over time, however, he became opposed to more conservative values aligned with clergy and the church hierarchy (something for which he was criticized by the Pope).[3]: 223, 225–226, 228 [5]: 259
In the realm of politics, he supported the cause of Polish independence, but opposed armed struggle, which in his literary works he depicted as unlikely to succeed. He became more supportive of it in his newspaper polemics after the January Uprising started, effectively accepting it as a fait accompli.[3]: 225–226, 228 Some of his novels and articles have been described as critical of Germany, reflecting a push against the policies of Germanization; this theme was particularly visible in his novels such as Na Wschodzie (In the East, 1866), Dziadunio (Grandpa, 1869), Mogilna (1871) i Nad Spreą (At Sprea, 1874), and many of his historical novels, which covered often antagonistic Polish-German relations (ex. Polish-Teutonic Wars).[3]: 226 [18] Others were critical of Russia; in particular his Rachunki Bolesławity (Bolesławita's accounts,1867) portrayed Russia as a primitive, barbaric country.[5]: 260 [19] He also criticized Russian ideology of panslavism, aiming at unifying all Slavic lands, and supported self-determination for Belorussians and Ukrainians.[18] As one of the major themes of his works was Lithuania, and his works, although written in Polish, are seen as contributing to the Lithuanian National Revival.[8]: 256
Remembrance
Kraszewski's works were adapted into numerous dramas; Stanisław Moniuszko composed music for the drama version of Anafielas [pl] third part, Witolorauda.[3]: 228
^Antkowiak, Zygmunt (1982). Patroni ulic Wrocławia (in Polish). Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. ISBN978-83-04-00995-0. Jan i Zofia mieli pięcioro dzieci, z których Józef Ignacy był najstarszy
^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyRoszkowska-Sykałowa, Wanda; Albrecht-Szymanowska, Wiesława (2001). "Kraszewski Józef Ignacy". In Loth, Roman (ed.). Dawni pisarze polscy od początków piśmiennictwa do Młodej Polski: przewodnik biograficzny i bibliograficzny. Vol. 2. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne. ISBN978-83-02-08101-9.
^Kościewicz, Katarzyna (2019). Preparowanie dziedzictwa: pisma Kraszewskiego, Sienkiewicza, Żeromskiego i innych autorów pod cenzorskim nadzorem 1945-1955 [Preparation of heritage: writings by Kraszewski, Sienkiewicz, Żeromski and other authors under censorship supervision, 1945-1955]. Białystok: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku. ISBN978-83-7431-564-7.
^ abDanek, Wincenty (1963). "Sprawy słowiańskie w życiu i twórczości Kraszewskiego" [Slavic issues in Kraszewski's life and work] (PDF). Pamiętnik Literacki: Czasopismo kwartalne poświęcone historii i krytyce literatury polskiej (in Polish). 54 (2): 357–374.
Elżbieta Szymańska/Joanna Magacz: Kraszewski-Museum in Dresden, Warschau 2006. ISBN83-89378-13-2
Zofia Wolska-Grodecka/Brigitte Eckart: Kraszewski-Museum in Dresden, Warschau 1996. ISBN83-904307-3-8
Elżbieta Szymańska/Ulrike Bäumer: Andenken an das Kraszewski-Museum in Dresden, ACGM Lodart, 2000
Victor Krellmann: "Liebesbriefe mit ebenholzschwarzer Tinte. Der polnische Dichter Kraszewski im Dresdner Exil", In: Philharmonische Blätter 1/2004, Dresden 2004.
Friedrich Scholz: Die Literaturen des Baltikums. Ihre Entstehung und Entwicklung. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen 1990. ISBN3-531-05097-4
Henryk Szczepański: Gwiazdy i legendy dawnych Katowic – Sekrety Załęskiego Przedmieścia. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Śląsk, 2015. ISBN978-83-7164-860-1
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Rumah Cengkareng atau Landhuis Tjengkarang adalah adalah sebuah rumah yang dirancang Michiel Romp pada tahun 1762.[1] Tampak depan landhuis Cengkareng Sejarah Pada tahun 1679 seorang pengusaha Eropa/Belanda yang membuka lahan dengan membangun benteng mulai merintis saluran irigasi dengan menyodet sungai Tangerang. Pada periode terjadinya perselisihan VOC dengan (kesultanan) Banten (1682-1684), sang pengusaha (Cornelis van Mook) kanal irigasi yang dibuat diperluas dengan membangun kanal u…
1953 film by Carol Reed The Man BetweenTheatrical release posterDirected byCarol ReedScreenplay byHarry KurnitzBased onEric Linklater(based on an original story by)Produced byCarol Reed[1]StarringJames MasonClaire BloomHildegard KnefCinematographyDesmond DickinsonEdited byBert BatesMusic byJohn AddisonColor processBlack and whiteProductioncompaniesLondon Films ProductionsBritish Lion FilmsDistributed byBritish Lion Films(UK)United Artists(US)Release date 2 November 1953 (1…
周處除三害The Pig, The Snake and The Pigeon正式版海報基本资料导演黃精甫监制李烈黃江豐動作指導洪昰顥编剧黃精甫主演阮經天袁富華陳以文王淨李李仁謝瓊煖配乐盧律銘林孝親林思妤保卜摄影王金城剪辑黃精甫林雍益制片商一種態度電影股份有限公司片长134分鐘产地 臺灣语言國語粵語台語上映及发行上映日期 2023年10月6日 (2023-10-06)(台灣) 2023年11月2日 (2023-11-02)(香港、…