Peace and conflict studies is both a pedagogical activity, in which teachers transmit knowledge to students; and a research activity, in which researchers create new knowledge about the sources of conflict.[2] Peace and conflict studies entails understanding the concept of peace which is defined as political condition that ensures justice and social stability through formal and informal institutions, practices, and norms.[3]
As pedagogical activity
Academics and students in the world's oldest universities have long been motivated by an interest in peace. American student interest in what we today think of as peace studies first appeared in the form of campus clubs at United States colleges in the years immediately following the American Civil War. Similar movements appeared in Sweden in the last years of the 19th century, as elsewhere soon after. These were student-originated discussion groups, not formal courses included in college curricula. The first known peace studies course in higher education was offered in 1888 at Swarthmore College, a Quaker school.
The First World War was a turning point in Western attitudes to war. At the 1919 Peace of Paris—where the leaders of France, Britain, and the United States, led by Georges Clemenceau, David Lloyd George, and Woodrow Wilson respectively, met to decide the future of Europe—Wilson proposed his famous Fourteen Points for peacemaking. These included breaking up European empires into nation states and the establishment of the League of Nations. These moves, intended to ensure a peaceful future, were the background to a number of developments in the emergence of Peace and Conflict Studies as an academic discipline. The founding of the first chair in International Relations at Aberystwyth University, Wales, whose remit was partly to further the cause of peace, occurred in 1919.
After World War II, the founding of the UN system provided a further stimulus for more rigorous approaches to peace and conflict studies to emerge. Many university courses in schools of higher learning around the world began to develop which touched upon questions of peace, often in relation to war, during this period. The first undergraduate academic program in peace studies in the United States was developed in 1948 by Gladdys Muir, at Manchester University a liberal arts college associated with the Church of the Brethren.[4] It was not until the late 1960s in the United States that student concerns about the Vietnam War forced ever more universities to offer courses about peace, whether in a designated peace studies course or as a course within a traditional major. Work by academics such as Johan Galtung and John Burton, and debates in fora such as the Journal of Peace Research in the 1960s reflected the growing interest and academic stature of the field.[5] Growth in the number of peace studies programs around the world was to accelerate during the 1980s, as students became more concerned about the prospects of nuclear war. As the Cold War ended, peace and conflict studies courses shifted their focus from international conflict[6] and towards complex issues related to political violence, human security, democratisation, human rights, social justice, welfare, development, and producing sustainable forms of peace. A proliferation of international organisations, agencies and international NGOs, from the UN, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, European Union, and World Bank to International Crisis Group, International Alert, and others, began to draw on such research.[7]
Critical theory agendas relating to positive peace in European academic contexts were already widely debated in the 1960s.[8] By the mid-1990s peace studies curricula in the United States had shifted "...from research and teaching about negative peace, the cessation of violence, to positive peace, the conditions that eliminate the causes of violence."[6] As a result, the topics had broadened enormously. By 1994, a review of course offerings in peace studies included topics such as: "north-south relations"; "development, debt, and global poverty"; "the environment, population growth, and resource scarcity"; and "feminist perspectives on peace, militarism, and political violence".[6]
A 1995 survey found 136 United States colleges with peace studies programs: "Forty-six percent of these are in church-related schools, another 32% are in large public universities, 21% are in non-church related private colleges, and 1% are in community colleges. Fifty-five percent of the church-related schools that have peace studies programs are Roman Catholic. Other denominations with more than one college or university with a peace studies program are the Quakers, Mennonites, Church of the Brethren, and United Church of Christ. One hundred fifteen of these programs are at the undergraduate level and 21 at the graduate level. Fifteen of these colleges and universities had both undergraduate and graduate programs."[6]
Although individual thinkers such as Immanuel Kant had long recognised the centrality of peace (see Perpetual Peace), it was not until the 1950s and 1960s that peace studies began to emerge as an academic discipline with its own research tools, a specialized set of concepts, and forums for discussion such as journals and conferences. Beginning in 1959, with the founding of the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), associated with Johan Galtung, a number of research institutes began to appear.[6]
In 1963, Walter Isard, the principal founder of regional science, assembled a group of scholars in Malmö, Sweden, for the purpose of establishing the Peace Research Society. The group of initial members included Kenneth Boulding and Anatol Rapoport. In 1973, this group became the Peace Science Society. Peace science was viewed as an interdisciplinary and international effort to develop a special set of concepts, techniques and data to better understand and mitigate conflict.[9] Peace science attempts to use the quantitative techniques developed in economics and political science, especially game theory and econometrics, techniques otherwise seldom used by researchers in peace studies.[10] The Peace Science Society website hosts the second edition of the Correlates of War, one of the most well-known collections of data on international conflict.[11] The society holds an annual conference, attended by scholars from throughout the world, and publishes two scholarly journals: Journal of Conflict Resolution and Conflict Management and Peace Science.
In 1964, the International Peace Research Association was formed at a conference organized by Quakers in Clarens, Switzerland. Among the original executive committee was Johan Galtung. The IPRA holds a biennial conference. Research presented at its conferences and in its publications typically focuses on institutional and historical approaches, seldom employing quantitative techniques.[12] In 2001, the Peace and Justice Studies Association (PJSA) was formed as a result of a merger of two precursor organisations. The PJSA is the North American affiliate of IPRA and includes members from around the world with a predominance from the United States and Canada. The PJSA publishes a regular newsletter (The Peace Chronicle), and holds annual conferences on themes related to the organization's mission "to create a just and peaceful world" through research, scholarship, pedagogy, and activism.[13]
In 2008, Strategic Foresight Group presented its report on an innovative mechanism to find sustainable solution to conflicts in the Middle East. It also developed a new Water Cooperation Quotient,[14] which is a measure of active cooperation by riparian countries in the management of water resources using 10 parameters including legal, political, technical, environmental, economic and institutional aspects.
Institutions like Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) are advancing the understanding of peace and development by analyzing the complex drivers of conflict and insecurity. Their approach acknowledges that conflicts are rarely caused by a single factor. Instead, a constellation of economic, social, political, and environmental factors, often reinforcing and exacerbating each other in ways that can lead to sustained violence or, conversely, pave pathways to peace.[15]
There has been a long-standing debate on disarmament issues, as well as attempts to investigate, catalogue, and analyse issues relating to arms production, trade, and their political impacts.[21] There have also been attempt to map the economic costs of war, or of relapses into violence, as opposed to those of peace.
Peace and conflict studies is now well established within the social sciences: it comprises many scholarly journals, college and university departments, peace research institutes, conferences, as well as outside recognition of the utility of peace and conflict studies as a method.
Peace Studies allows one to examine the causes and prevention of war, as well as the nature of violence, including social oppression, discrimination and marginalization. Through peace studies one can also learn peace-making strategies to overcome persecution and transform society to attain a more just and equitable international community.
Feminist scholars have developed a speciality within conflict studies, specifically examining the role of gender and interlocking systems of inequality in armed and other conflicts.[22][23] The importance of considering the role of gender in post-conflict work was recognised by the United Nations Security Council resolution 1325. Examples of feminist scholarship include the work of Carol Cohn and Claire Duncanson.
Negative peace refers to the absence of direct violence. Positive peace refers to the critical theory of conflict resolution and the absence of indirect and structural violence, and is the concept that most peace and conflict researchers adopt. This is often credited to Galtung[24] but these terms were previously used by Martin Luther King Jr. in his "Letter from Birmingham Jail" in 1963, in which he wrote about "negative peace which is the absence of tension" and "positive peace which is the presence of justice." These terms were perhaps first used by Jane Addams in a series of lectures about 'positive ideals of peace' begun in 1899 that took form in her book Newer Ideals of Peace where she switched to the term "newer ideals", but continued to contrast them to the term "negative peace"; she described them as we think of them today, as peace with "a sense of justice no longer outraged." The idea was further popularized by then-UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali in his 1992 report An Agenda for Peace, published in the aftermath of the Cold War.[25]
Several conceptions, models, or modes of peace have been suggested in which peace research might prosper.[26]
The crux of the matter is that peace is a natural social condition, whereas war is not. The premise is simple for peace researchers: to present enough information so that a rational group of decision makers will seek to avoid war and conflict.
Third is pacifism: the view that peace is a prime force in human behaviour.
A further approach is that there are multiple modes of peace.[27]
There have been many offerings on these various forms of peace. These range from the well known works of Kant, Locke, Rousseau, Paine, on various liberal international and constitutional and plans for peace. Variations and additions have been developed more recently by scholars such as Raymond Aron, Edward Azar, John Burton, Martin Ceadal, Wolfgang Dietrich, Kevin Dooley, Johan Galtung, Robert L. Holmes,[28][29][30][31] Michael Howard, Vivienne Jabri, John-Paul Lederach, Roger Mac Ginty, Pamina Firchow, Hugh Miall, David Mitrany, Oliver Ramsbotham, Anatol Rapoport, Mikkel Vedby Rasmussen, Oliver Richmond, S.P. Udayakumar, Tom Woodhouse, others mentioned above and many more. Democratic peace, liberal peace, sustainable peace, civil peace, hybrid peace, post-liberal peace, everyday peace, trans-rational peace(s) and other concepts are regularly used in such work.
Under the conceptions of peace, sustainable peace must be regarded as an important factor for the future of prosperity. Sustainable peace must be the priority of global society where state actors and non-state actors do not only seek for the profits in a near future that might violate the stable state of peace. For a sustainable peace, nurturing, empowerment, and communications are considered to be the crucial factors throughout the world. Firstly, nurturing is necessary to encourage psychological stability and emotional maturity. The significance of social value in adequate nurturing is important for sustainable peace. Secondly, in order to achieve real security, inner security must be secured along with arranged social systems and protection based on firm foundation. Lastly, communications are necessary to overcome ignorance and establish a community based on reliable and useful information. It will prevents isolation to take place which is critical to bring sustainable peace.[32]
Conflict triangle
Johan Galtung's conflict triangle works on the assumption that the best way to define peace is to define violence, its opposite. It reflects the normative aim of preventing, managing, limiting and overcoming violence.[24]
Direct (overt) violence: for example, direct attacks and massacres.
Structural violence: Structural violence is indirect violence caused by repressive, unequal and unjust social structures, not direct acts of violence or unavoidable causes of harm.
Cultural violence: Cultural violence occurs as a result of the cultural assumptions that blind one to direct or structural violence. For example, one may be indifferent toward the homeless, or even consider their expulsion or extermination a good thing.
Each corner of Galtung's triangle can relate to the other two. Ethnic cleansing can be an example of all three.
A simplification of these can be phrased as:
Direct violence: harming or hurting the body and mind.
Structural violence: economic exploitation and political repression.
Cultural violence: underlying values and epistemic models that legitimize direct and structural violence.[citation needed]
Appeasement and deterrence
Appeasement in a strategy of making political, material, or territorial concessions to an aggressive power to avoid conflict.[33]Deterrence is a strategy to use threats or limited force to dissuade an actor from escalating conflict,[34] typically because the prospective attacker believes that the probability of success is low and the costs of attack are high.[35]
Cost of conflict and price of unjust peace
Cost of conflict is a approach which attempts to calculate the price of conflicts. The idea is to examine this cost, not only in terms of the deaths and casualties and the economic costs borne by the people involved, but also the social, developmental, environmental and strategic costs of conflict. The approach considers direct costs of conflict, for instance human deaths, expenditure, destruction of land and physical infrastructure; as well as indirect costs that impact a society, for instance migration, humiliation, growth of extremism and lack of civil society. The price of unjust peace can be higher than the cost of conflict.[36][37]
Critical theory argues for a shift from "negative peace" described as absence of violence against individuals to "positive peace" described as the absence of structural violence.[45] This emerged rapidly at the end of the Cold War, and was encapsulated in the report of then-UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace.[25] Indeed, it might be said that much of the machinery of what has been called "liberal peacebuilding" by a number of scholars[46] and "statebuilding" by another[47] is based largely on the work that has been carried out in this area. Many scholars in the area have advocated a more "emancipatory" form of peacebuilding, however, based upon a "Responsibility to Protect" (R2P),[48] human security,[49] local ownership and participation in such processes,[50] especially after the limited success of liberal peacebuilding/ statebuilding in places as diverse as Cambodia, the Balkans, East Timor, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Nepal, Afghanistan, and Iraq. This approach includes the normatively oriented work that emerged in the peace studies and conflict research schools of the 1960s (e.g. Oslo Peace Research Institute on "Liberal Peace and the Ethics of Peacebuilding")[51] and more critical ideas about peacebuilding that have recently developed in many European and non-western academic and policy circles.[52]
Prediction and forecasting
Conflict forecasts and early warnings can be sufficiently precise to be relevant for policy and evaluation of theories.[53] Conflict escalation can be rational for one side of the conflict in some cases of asymmetric conflicts,[54]appeasement[55] or for Fait accompli,[56] causing challenges to de-escalation.
Complex system approach to peace and armed conflict
The normative aims of peace studies are conflict transformation and conflict resolution through mechanisms such as peacekeeping, peacebuilding (e.g., tackling disparities in rights, institutions and the distribution of world wealth) and peacemaking (e.g., mediation and conflict resolution). Peacekeeping falls under the aegis of negative peace, whereas efforts toward positive peace involve elements of critical theory, peace building and peacemaking.[59]
Peace and conflict studies in military
Peace and conflict are widely studied by militaries. One approach by military to prevent conflict and conflict escalation is deterrence.[60]Critical theory argues that military is overtly committed to combat in the article "Teaching Peace to the Military", published in the journal Peace Review,[61]James Page argues for five principles that ought to undergird this undertaking, namely, respect but do not privilege military experience, teach the just war theory, encourage students to be aware of the tradition and techniques of nonviolence, encourage students to deconstruct and demythologize, and recognize the importance of military virtue.
Criticism of peace and conflict studies
In 1980, political scientist J. David Singer criticized the early development of the discipline of peace research on three grounds:[62]
Peace research contributed to creating a schism in research into the causes of war, thus making it harder to develop systematic research into war
"many peace researchers had the intellectual innocence of most bright amateurs; they underestimated the rate at which their research findings would become applicable and would be applied to major policy problems of the day."
many peace researchers failed to distinguish between objective research into the conditions of war and peace on one hand, and political action and propaganda in favor of specific policies
In the Summer 2007 edition of City Journal, Bruce Bawer criticized the political orientation of the Peace Studies faculty. More broadly, he criticizes the discipline for considering and taking seriously the alternative, non-Western perspectives of the Global South and radical liberation movements.[65] Bawer quoted Galtung and Lenin’s theory of anti-imperialism in Webel and Barash's 2002 textbook to argue the discipline is anti-Western, leftist and anti-imperialist.[66][67][68]
Kay and Bawer also specifically criticized Professor Gordon Fellman, the Chairman of Brandeis University's Peace, Conflict, and Coexistence Studies Program, for describing the strategic logic of Palestinian terrorism. [65][69]
Robert Kennedy, a professor at the University of St. Thomas, criticized his university's Peace Studies Program in an interview with Minneapolis Star Tribune in 2002, stating that the program employs several academically trained, professional practitioners as sessional instructors.[70]
Responses
Such views have been strongly opposed by scholars who claim that these criticisms underestimate the development of detailed interdisciplinary, theoretical, methodological, and empirical research into the causes of violence and dynamics of peace that has occurred via academic and policy networks around the world.[7]
In reply to Barbara Kay's article, a group of Peace Studies experts in Canada responded that "Kay's...argument that the field of peace studies endorses terrorism is nonsense" and that "(d)edicated peace theorists and researchers are distinguished by their commitment to reduce the use of violence whether committed by enemy nations, friendly governments or warlords of any stripe." They also argued that:
...Ms. Kay attempts to portray advocates for peace as naive and idealistic, but the data shows that the large majority of armed conflicts in recent decades have been ended through negotiations, not military solutions. In the contemporary world, violence is less effective than diplomacy in ending armed conflict. Nothing is 100% effective to reduce tyranny and violence, but domestic and foreign strategy needs to be based on evidence, rather than assumptions and misconceptions from a bygone era.[71]
Most academics in the area argue that the accusations that peace studies approaches are not objective, and derived from mainly leftist or inexpert sources, are not practical, support violence rather than reject it, or have not led to policy developments, are clearly incorrect.
The development of UN and major donor policies (including the EU, US, and UK, as well as many others including those of Japan, Canada, Norway, etc.) towards and in conflict and post-conflict countries have been heavily influenced by such debates. A range of key policy documents and responses have been developed by these governments in the last decade and more, and in UN (or related) documentation such as "Agenda for Peace", "Agenda for Development", "Agenda for Democratization", the Millennium Development Goals, Responsibility to Protect, and the "High Level Panel Report".[72] They have also been significant for the work of the World Bank, international development agencies, and a wide range of nongovernmental organisations.[73] It has been influential in the work of, among others, the UN, UNDP, UN Peacebuilding Commission, UNHCR, World Bank, EU, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, for national donors including USAID, DFID, CIDA, NORAD, DANIDA, Japan Aid, GTZ, and international NGOs such as International Alert or International Crisis Group, as well as many local NGOs. Major databases have been generated by the work of scholars in these areas.[74]
Finally, peace and conflict studies debates have generally confirmed, not undermined, a broad consensus (in developed world and the Global South) on the importance of human security, human rights, development, democracy, and a rule of law (though there is a vibrant debate ongoing about the contextual variations and applications of these frameworks).[75] At the same time, the research field is characterized by a number of challenges including the tension between "the objective of doing critical research and being of practical relevance".[76]
^Christie Nicoson, Barbara Magalhães Teixeira, Alva Mårtensson (09 November 2023), "Re-Imagining Peace Education: Using Critical Pedagogy as a Transformative Tool," International Studies Perspectives, ekad023
^ Miller and King, 2005, "Peace," in A glossary of terms and concepts in peace and conflict studies, University for Peace, Geneva
^Wolfgang Dietrich, Daniela Ingruber, Josefina Echavarría, Gustavo Esteva and Norbert Koppensteiner (eds.): The Palgrave International Handbook of Peace Studies: A Cultural Perspective, London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
^"For Young Activists, Peacemaking 101", by Tom Ford and Bob von Sternberg, Minneapolis Star Tribune, December 17, 2002.
^In defence of peace studiesArchived 2023-10-29 at the Wayback Machine by Catherine Morris, director, Peacemakers Trust, Victoria; Ben Hoffman, president and CEO, Canadian International Institute of Applied Negotiation, Ottawa; Dean E. Peachey, visiting professor in transitional justice, Global College, University of Winnipeg, National Post, February 25, 2009. (Full letter is available here)
^Report of the Secretary- General's High Level Panel on Threats, Challenges, and Change, United Nations, 2004: Boutros Boutros Ghali, An Agenda For Peace: preventative diplomacy, peacemaking and peacekeeping, New York: United Nations, 1992; An Agenda for Development: Report of the Secretary-General, A/48/935, 6 May 1994; "Supplement to An Agenda for Peace" A/50/60, S.1995/1, 3 January 1995; An Agenda for Democratization, A/50/332 AND A/51/512, 17 December 1996.
^Michael Doyle and Nicolas Sambanis, Making War and Building Peace, (Princeton University Press, 2006); Charles T. Call and Elizabeth M. Cousens, "Ending Wars and Building Peace: International Responses to War-Torn Societies," International Studies Perspectives, 9 (2008): Stephen D. Krasner, "Sharing Sovereignty. New Institutions for Collapsed and Failing States," International Security, 29, 2 (2004); Roland Paris, At War's End, (Cambridge University Press, 2004).
Aron, Raymond, Peace and War: A Theory of International Relations, London: Transaction, 2003 [1966].
Avruch, Kevin, Peter W. Black, and Joseph A. Scimecca (eds.), Conflict Resolution: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, London: Greenwood Press, 1991.
Azar, Edward E., The Management of Protracted Social Conflict, Hampshire, UK: Dartmouth Publishing, 1990.
Beer, Francis A., Meanings of War and Peace, College Station: Texas A & M University Press 2001.
Beer, Francis, Peace Against War, San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1981.
Bawer, Bruce, "The Peace Racket", City Journal, Summer 2007 link
Burton, John W., and Edward E. Azar, International Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice, Sussex: Wheatsheaf Books, 1986.
Caplan, Richard, International Governance of War-Torn Territories: Rule and Reconstruction, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Ceadal, M, Thinking about Peace and War, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.
Chandler, D. Empire in Denial: The Politics of State-Building. Pluto Press, 2006.
Churchman, D. The Origins, Nature, and Management of Human Conflict. University Press of America, 2013.
Cooper, Neil, "What's the Point of Arms Transfer Controls?", Contemporary Security Policy, Vol. 27, No. 1, April 2006 pp. 118–137.
Jarat Chopra, and Tanja Hohe, "Participatory Intervention", Global Governance, Vol. 10, 2004.
Darby, John, and Roger MacGinty, Contemporary Peacemaking, London: Palgrave, 2003.
Wolfgang Dietrich, Josefina Eachavarría Alvarez, Norbert Koppensteiner eds.: Key Texts of Peace Studies; LIT Münster, Vienna, 2006.
Wolfgang Dietrich, Daniela Ingruber, Josefina Echavarría, Gustavo Esteva and Norbert Koppensteiner (eds.): The Palgrave International Handbook of Peace Studies: A Cultural Perspective, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
Dooley, Kevin L., and S.P. Udayakumar, "Reconceptualizing Global Conflicts: From Us Versus Them to Us Versus Then," Journal of Global Change and Governance, Vol. 2, No. 1, Spring 2009.
Duffield, Mark, Global Governance and the New Wars: The Merging of Development and Security, London: Zed Books, 2001.
Dugan, M. 1989. "Peace Studies at the Graduate Level." The Annals of the American Academy of Political Science: Peace Studies: Past and Future, 504, 72–79.
Dunn, DJ, The First Fifty Years of Peace Research, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005.
Fukuyama, Francis, State Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-First Century, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004.
Galtung, J., "A Structural Theory of Imperialism", Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1971.
Galtung, Johan, and Carl G. Jacobsen, Searching for Peace: The Road to TRANSCEND, Pluto Press: London, 2000.
Gibler, Douglas M.; Miller, Steven V. (2021). "The Territorial Peace: Current and Future Research". In McLaughlin, Sara; Vasquez, John A. (eds.). What do we know about War? (3 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 158–170.
Harris, Ian, Larry J. Fisk, and Carol Rank. (1998). "A Portrait of University Peace Studies in North America and Western Europe at the End of the Millennium." International Journal of Peace Studies. Volume 3, Number 1. ISSN 1085-7494 link
Howard, M. The Invention of Peace and the Re-Invention of War, London: Profile, 2002.
Jabri, Vivienne, Discourses on Violence, Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1996.
Jabri, Vivienne, War and the Transformation of Global Politics, London: Palgrave, 2007.
Keynes, John Maynard, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, London: Macmillan, 1920.
Koppensteiner, Norbert: The Art of the Transpersonal Self. Transformation as Aesthetic and Energetic Practice; [ATROPOS] New York, Dresden, 2009.
Kosaka, Masataka, International Politics and the Search for Peace, Tokyo: Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture, 2023 [1966]. link
Kumar, Samrat Schmiem, Bhakti - the yoga of love: Trans-rational approaches to Peace Studies; Münster: LIT Verlag, 2010.
Lederach, J., Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies, Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 1997.
López-Martínez, Mario (dir) Enciclopedia de paz y conflictos. Granada, 2004. ISBN84-338-3095-3, 2 tomos.
Lund, Michael S., "What Kind of Peace Is being Built: Taking Stock of Post-Conflict Peacebuilding and Charting Future Directions", Paper presented on the 10th Anniversary of Agenda for Peace, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada, January 2003.
Miall, Hugh, Oliver Ramsbotham, and Tom Woodhouse, Contemporary Conflict Resolution, Polity Press, 2005.
Mitrany, D.A., The Functional Theory of Politics, London: Martin Robertson, 1975.
Richmond, OP, Maintaining Order, Making Peace, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
Richmond, OP, A Post-Liberal Peace, London: Routledge, 2011.
Richmond, OP, The Transformation of Peace, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. ————
Richmond, OP, and Jason Franks, Liberal Peace Transitions: Between Statebuilding and Peacebuilding, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009.
Rosato, Sebastian (2003). "The Flawed Logic of Democratic Peace Theory". American Political Science Review. 97 (4): 585–602. doi:10.1017/s0003055403000893. S2CID17654114.
Routledge Contemporary Security Studies series: Women, Peace and Security: Translating Policy into Practice First published 2010. Introduction by 'Funmi Olonisakin, Director of Conflict, Security & Development Group, King's College London, and Karen Barnes. Chapter by Lesley Abdela 'Nepal and the implementation of UNSCR1325'. ISBN978-0-415-58797-6 (hbk)
Rummel, RJ, The Just Peace, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981.
Tadjbakhsh, Shahrbanou, and Anuradha M. Chenoy, Human Security: Concepts and Implications, London: Routledge, 2006
Taylor, Paul, and A.J.R. Groom (eds.), The UN at the Millennium, London: Continuum, 2000.
Tidwell, Alan C., Conflict Resolved, London: Pinter, 1998.
Trinn, Christoph, and Thomas Wencker, "Integrating the Quantitative Research on the Onset and Incidence of Violent Intrastate Conflicts" International Studies Review, 2020. (doi.org/10.1093/isr/viaa023)
Vayrynen, R., New Directions in Conflict Theory: Conflict Resolution and Conflict Transformation, London: Sage, 1991.
Vedby Rasmussen, Mikkel, The West, Civil Society, and the Construction of Peace, London: Palgrave, 2003.
Wallensteen, Peter (ed.), Peace Research: Achievements and Challenges, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988.
Young, Nigel J. (ed.), The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace (4 vols. 2010) 3:449–498.
Zartman, William, and Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques, Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997.
Marian Nixon Marian Nixon, nome d'arte di Marian Nissinen (Superior, 20 ottobre 1904 – Los Angeles, 13 febbraio 1983), è stata un'attrice statunitense. Indice 1 Biografia 2 Premi e riconoscimenti 3 Filmografia 4 Bibliografia 5 Voci correlate 6 Altri progetti 7 Collegamenti esterni Biografia Iniziò a lavorare nel mondo dello spettacolo come ballerina di rivista ed esordì nel cinema nel 1923, apparendo in parti di rilievo soprattutto in western interpretati con Buck Jones. Nel 1924 fu scelta …
Laser Laser (singkatan dari bahasa Inggris: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) merupakan mekanisme suatu alat yang memancarkan radiasi elektromagnetik, biasanya dalam bentuk cahaya yang tidak dapat dilihat maupun dapat lihat dengan mata normal, melalui proses pancaran terstimulasi. Pancaran laser biasanya tunggal, memancarkan foton dalam pancaran koheren. Laser juga dapat dikatakan efek dari mekanika kuantum. Deskripsi Dari kiri ke kanan: sinar gamma, Sinar X, sinar ultravi…
La LiguaVilla de Santo Domingo de Rozas de La Ligua Comuna Escudo Mapa interactivoCoordenadas 32°26′58″S 71°13′54″O / -32.4494, -71.2317Entidad Comuna • País Chile • Región Valparaíso • Provincia PetorcaAlcalde Patricio Pallares (Ind.)Eventos históricos • Fundación 21 de junio de 1754 (269 años) (Ortiz de Rozas)Superficie • Total 1163 km²Altitud • Media 126 m s. n. m.Población…
Rumus struktur adenosin difosfat (ADP) Adenosin difosfat, disingkat ADP, adalah sebuah nukleotida. Senyawa ini merupakan bentuk ester dari asam pirofosforat dengan nukleobasa adenina. ADP terdiri dari gugus pirofosfat, ribosa gula pentosa, dan nukleobasa adenina.[1] ADP merupakan produk intermediat dalam berbagai metabolisme selular[1]. ADP merupakan produk dari reaksi defosforilasi hidrolisis ATP pada ATPase. ADP dapat kembali menjadi ATP oleh ATP synthase. ATP adalah energi yan…
Grisaia no Kajitsuグリザイアの果実(Gurizaia no Kajitsu) PermainanPengembangFront WingPenerbitJP: Front WingJP: Prototype (PSP/PSV)WW: Sekai ProjectGenreEroge, novel visualPlatformWindows, PlayStation Portable, PlayStation VitaRilisMicrosoft WindowsJP: 25 Februari 2011PlayStation PortableJP: 21 Februari 2013PlayStation VitaJP: 8 Agustus 2013 PermainanGrisaia no MeikyuuPengembangFront WingPenerbitJP: Front WingJP: Prototype (PSP/PSV)WW: Sekai ProjectGenreEroge, Novel visualPlatformWindows,…
1974 studio album by Aunty JackAunty Jack Sings WollongongStudio album by Aunty JackReleasedNovember 1974Recorded1974GenreComedyLength50:05LabelWarner Music AustraliaProducerGrahame Bond, Rory O'Donoghue, Maurice Murphy Aunty Jack Sings Wollongong is an Australian album released in November 1974 as a spin-off from the cult ABC Television show Aunty Jack. It contains a mixture of songs and sketches and, along with the single Farewell Aunty Jack, is the only audio release from the Aunty Ja…
Hemaka Era: Kerajaan Baru(1550–1069 BC) Hieroglif Mesir Hemaka merupakan seorang pejabat penting selama masa pemerintahan Dinasti pertama Mesir Firaun Den. Penelitian penanggalan radiokarbon yang dilakukan selama tahun 1950-an menyatakan tanggal masa hidup Hemaka pada sekitar tahun 3100 SM.[1] Salah satu gelar Hemaka adalah pembawa segel raja Mesir Hilir,[2] dengan efektif menjadikannya kanselir dan yang kedua berkuasa hanya kepada raja.[3] Vas Alabaster bertuliska…
العلاقات الروسية القيرغيزستانية روسيا قيرغيزستان روسيا قيرغيزستان تعديل مصدري - تعديل العلاقات الروسية القيرغيزستانية هي العلاقات الثنائية التي تجمع بين روسيا وقيرغيزستان.[1][2][3][4][5] مقارنة بين البلدين هذه مقارنة عامة ومرجعية للدولتي…
1992 2005 Référendum sur le quinquennat présidentiel Méthode de vote 24 septembre 2000 Type d’élection Référendum Corps électoral et résultats Inscrits 39 941 192 Votants 12 058 688 30,19 % Votes exprimés 10 118 348 Blancs et nuls 1 940 340 Oui (+ de 75 %) Oui (entre 72,5 et 75 %) Oui (entre 70 et 72,5 %) Oui (entre 50 et 70 %) Approuvez-vous le projet de loi constitutionnelle fixant la durée du mandat du…
United States Senate election in New Jersey 1922 United States Senate election in New Jersey ← 1916 November 7, 1922 1928 → Nominee Edward I. Edwards Joseph S. Frelinghuysen Sr. Party Democratic Republican Popular vote 451,832 362,699 Percentage 54.87% 44.05% County results Edwards: 50–60% 70–80% Frelinghuysen: 40–50% 50–60% …
Lokasi Distrik Tamura di Prefektur Fukushima. Lokasi munisipalitas yang ada di Distrik Tamura, Prefektur Fukushima1. – Miharu 2. – Onowarna hijau - cakupan wilayah distrik saat iniwarna kuning - bekas wilayah distrik pada awal zaman Meiji Distrik Tamura (田村郡code: ja is deprecated , Tamura-gun) adalah sebuah distrik yang terletak di Prefektur Fukushima, Jepang. Per 1 Oktober 2020, distrik ini memiliki estimasi jumlah penduduk sebesar 26.489 jiwa dan kepadatan penduduk sebesar 133,85 ora…
American actor (1940–1986) Robert La TourneauxLa Tourneaux in After Dark magazine, 1969BornRobert Earl LaTurnoNovember 22, 1941 (1941-11-22)St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.DiedJune 3, 1986(1986-06-03) (aged 44)New York City, U.S.OccupationActorYears active1960s–1983 From the original film window card for The Boys in the Band, 1970 Robert La Tourneaux (August 10, 1940 – June 3, 1986) was an American actor best known for his role of Cowboy, the good-natured but dim hustler hired as a…
العلاقات الإثيوبية الكينية إثيوبيا كينيا إثيوبيا كينيا تعديل مصدري - تعديل العلاقات الإثيوبية الكينية هي العلاقات الثنائية التي تجمع بين إثيوبيا وكينيا.[1][2][3][4][5] مقارنة بين البلدين هذه مقارنة عامة ومرجعية للدولتين: وجه المقارنة إثيوب…
Софийская первая летописьCIЛ, С1Л Авторы неизвестны Дата написания XV век Язык оригинала древнерусский язык Страна Описывает до 1418 года Жанр мемориальный памятник; летопись Рукописи списки двух изводов Софийская первая летопись (CIЛ, С1Л) — русская летопись, доведённая до…
Guido Picelli Deputato del Regno d'ItaliaDurata mandato1921 –novembre 1926 LegislaturaXXVI, XXVII CircoscrizioneEmilia CollegioParma Sito istituzionale Dati generaliPartito politicoPartito Socialista Italiano (1914-1924)Partito Comunista d'Italia (1924-1936) ProfessionePolitico Guido Picelli (Parma, 9 ottobre 1889 – Algora, 5 gennaio 1937) è stato un politico, antifascista e militare italiano, animatore della resistenza armata di Parma alle milizie fasciste, nel 1922;…
Castricum adalah sebuah gemeente Belanda yang terletak di provinsi Noord Holland. Pada tahun 2004 daerah ini memiliki penduduk sebesar 35.291 jiwa. Lihat pula Daftar Kota Belanda lbsMunisipalitas di provinsi Holland Utara Aalsmeer Alkmaar Amstelveen Amsterdam Bergen Beverwijk Blaricum Bloemendaal Castricum Den Helder Diemen Dijk en Waard Drechterland Edam-Volendam Enkhuizen Gooise Meren Haarlem Haarlemmermeer Heemskerk Heemstede Heiloo Hilversum Hollands Kroon Hoorn Huizen Koggenland Landsmeer L…
Monarki Yunani Bekas Kerajaan Lambang Royal Constantine II Penguasa pertama Otto I[1] Penguasa terakhir Constantine II[2] Gelar Yang Mulia Kediaman resmi Istana Royal Baru Penunjuk Turun-temurun Pendirian 27 Mei 1832 Pembubaran 1 Juni 1973 Penuntut takhta Constantine II Inilah daftar Raja Yunani, yang umum dikenal, sejak 1863, dengan gelar Raja Hellenia (Yunani: Βασιλεύς των Ελλήνων. Fakta tentang monarki Dalam Kerajaan Yunani modern, didirikan pada tahun 18…
Voce principale: Delfino Pescara 1936. Pescara CalcioStagione 1991-1992 Sport calcio Squadra Pescara Allenatore Giovanni Galeone Presidente Pietro Scibilia Serie B2ª (promosso in Serie A) Coppa ItaliaPrimo turno Maggiori presenzeCampionato: Massara (38)Totale: Massara (40) Miglior marcatoreCampionato: Bivi (12)Totale: Bivi (12) StadioAdriatico 1990-1991 1992-1993 Si invita a seguire il modello di voce Questa voce raccoglie le informazioni riguardanti il Pescara Calcio nelle competizioni uf…
Period of reduced funding and interest in AI research Part of a series onArtificial intelligence Major goals Artificial general intelligence Recursive self-improvement Planning Computer vision General game playing Knowledge reasoning Machine learning Natural language processing Robotics AI safety Approaches Symbolic Deep learning Bayesian networks Evolutionary algorithms Situated approach Hybrid intelligent systems Systems integration Applications Projects Deepfake Machine translation Generative…