游離輻射在暴露時間内對半導體晶格造成的累积損傷(晶格位移損傷)。它以拉德為單位進行測量,會導致設備性能缓慢逐渐下降。在幾秒到幾分钟内輸送到矽基設備的總劑量超過 5000 拉德將導致長期性能下降。在CMOS元件中,輻射會在栅極絕緣層中產生電子-空穴對,它們在復合過程中會產生光電流,而絕緣體中晶格缺陷中捕獲的空穴會產生持续的栅極偏置並影響晶體管的阈值電压,使N型MOSFET晶體管更容易導通,而P型晶體管更難導通。累积的電荷可能足夠高,使晶體管永久打開(或关闭),从而導致設備故障。隨着時間的推移,一些自我修復會發生,但這種效果並不是太显著。這種效應與高積體度高速電子元件中的热載流子退化相同。晶體振荡器對輻射劑量有一定的敏感度,輻射劑量會改變其频率。使用扫频石英可以大大降低灵敏度。天然石英晶體特别敏感。可以為所有結果效應測試程序生成 TID 測試的輻射性能曲線。這些曲線显示了整個 TID 測試過程中的性能趋势,並包含在輻射測試报告中。
瞬時劑量效應
短時高強度輻射脈衝,通常發生在核爆炸期間。高輻射通量在整個半導體中產生光電流,導致晶體管隨機打開,从而改變触發器和存儲單元的逻辑状态。如果脈衝持续時間太長,或者脈衝導致結損壞或閂锁,则可能會造成永久性損壞。閂锁通常是由核爆炸的 X 射線和伽馬輻射闪光引起的。由於石英中诱發的瞬時光電導,晶體振荡器可能會在闪光持续期間停止振荡。
電子產品中的單粒子翻转(SEU) 或瞬态輻射效應是由單個離子與晶片相互作用引起的存儲器或寄存器位的状态變化。它們不會對設備造成持久損壞,但可能會對无法从此類錯誤中恢復的系统造成持久问题。軟錯誤,可逆。在非常敏感的設備中,單個離子可能會導致幾個相邻的存儲單元出現多位翻转(MBU)。當 SEU 扰乱控制電路(如状态機)時,它們會變成單事件功能中断( SEFI ),使設備進入未定义状态、測試模式或停止状态,然後需要重置或電源循環才能恢復。
單粒子閂锁
SEL 可以出現在任何具有寄生 PNPN結構的晶片中。重離子或高能質子穿過兩個内部晶體管結之一,可以開启類似晶闸管的結構,然後该結構保持“短路”状态(這種效應稱為閂锁),直到設備重新通電。由於這種影響可能發生在電源和基板之間,因此可能會產生破坏性的高電流,導致部件失效。硬錯誤,不可逆。體矽 CMOS 元件最容易受到影響。
單粒子回跳類似於 SEL,但不需要 PNPN 結構,可以在切换大電流的 N 沟道 MOS 晶體管中感應產生,當離子撞擊漏極結附近並導致電荷載流子的雪崩倍增時。然後晶體管打開並保持打開状态,這是一個不可逆的硬錯誤。
盡管質子束因其可用性而被廣泛用於 SEE 測試,但在較低能量下,質子辐照通常會低估 SEE 敏感性。此外,質子束使設備面临總電離劑量 (TID) 故障的风險,這可能會影響質子測試結果或導致設備過早失效。白色中子束——表面上是最具代表性的 SEE 測試方法——通常來自基於固體靶的源,導致通量不均匀和光束面积較小。白色中子束的能谱也具有一定的不確定性,通常具有較高的热中子含量。
使用單能 14 MeV 中子進行 SEE 測試可以避免質子和散裂中子源的缺点。一個潛在的问题是單能中子引起的單粒子效應不能準確地代表廣谱大氣中子在現實世界中的影響。然而,最近的研究表明,事實恰恰相反,單能中子(特别是 14 MeV 中子)可以用來相當準確地理解現代微電子学中的 SEE 截面。 [9]
The Proton 100k SBC by Space Micro Inc., introduced in 2003, uses an updated voting scheme called TTMR which mitigates single event upset (SEU) in a single processor. The processor is Equator BSP-15.[來源請求][citation needed]
The Proton200k SBC by Space Micro Inc, introduced in 2004, mitigates SEU with its patented time triple modular redundancy (TTMR) technology, and single event function interrupts (SEFI) with H-Core technology. The processor is the high speed Texas Instruments320C6Xx seriesdigital signal processor. The Proton200k operates at 4000 MIPS while mitigating SEU.[來源請求][citation needed]
The RHPPC is produced by Honeywell Aerospace. Based on hardened PowerPC 603e.
The SP0 and SP0-S are produced by Aitech Defense Systems is a 3U cPCI SBC which utilizes the SOI PowerQUICC-III MPC8548E, PowerPC e500 based, capable of processing speeds ranging from 833 MHz to 1.18 GHz.[26]
The RAD750 SBC, also produced by BAE Systems, and based on the PowerPC 750 processor, is the successor to the RAD6000.
The SCS750 built by Maxwell Technologies, which votes three PowerPC 750 cores against each other to mitigate radiation effects. Seven of those are used by the Gaia spacecraft.
The Boeing Company, through its Satellite Development Center, produces a radiation hardened space computer variant based on the PowerPC 750.
The BRE440 by Broad Reach Engineering. IBM PPC440 core based system-on-a-chip, 266 MIPS, PCI, 2x Ethernet, 2x UARTS, DMA controller, L1/L2 cache
The RAD5500 processor, is the successor to the RAD750 based on the PowerPC e5500.
The Gen 6 single-board computer (SBC), produced by Cobham Semiconductor Solutions (formerly Aeroflex Microelectronics Solutions), enabled for the LEON microprocessor.[27]
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