Polydactyly in stem-tetrapods

Polydactyly in stem-tetrapods should here be understood as having more than five digits to the finger or foot, a condition that was the natural state of affairs in the earliest stegocephalians during the evolution of terrestriality. The polydactyly in these largely aquatic animals is not to be confused with polydactyly in the medical sense, i.e. it was not an anomaly in the sense it was not a congenital condition of having more than the typical number of digits for a given taxon.^[1] Rather, it appears to be a result of the early evolution from a limb with a fin rather than digits.

"Living tetrapods, such as the frogs, turtles, birds and mammals, are a subgroup of the tetrapod lineage. The lineage also includes finned and limbed tetrapods that are more closely related to living tetrapods than to living lungfishes."^[2] Tetrapods evolved from animals with fins such as found in lobe-finned fishes. From this condition a new pattern of limb formation evolved, where the development axis of the limb rotated to sprout secondary axes along the lower margin, giving rise to a variable number of very stout skeletal supports for a paddle-like foot.^[3] The condition is thought to have arisen from the loss of the fin ray-forming proteins actinodin 1 and actinodin 2 or modification of the expression of HOXD13.^[4]^[5] It is still unknown why exactly this happens. "SHH is produced by the mesenchymal cells of the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) found at the posterior margin of the limbs of all vertebrates with paired appendages, including the most primitive chondrichthyian fishes. Its expression is driven by a well-conserved limb-specific enhancer called the ZRS (zone of polarizing region activity regulatory sequence) that is located approximately 1 Mb upstream of the coding sequence of Shh."^[6]

Devonian taxa were polydactylous. Acanthostega had eight digits on both the hindlimbs and forelimbs. Ichthyostega, which was both more derived and more specialized, had seven digits on the hindlimb, though the hand is unknown. The yet-more-derived Tulerpeton had six toes on both the hindlimbs and forelimbs.^[1]

It is unclear whether polydactylous tetrapods survived to the Carboniferous. Crassigyrinus, from the fossil-poor Romer's gap in the early Carboniferous, is usually thought to have had five digits to each foot. The anthracosaurs, which may be stem-tetrapods^[7]^[8] or reptiliomorphs,^[9] retained the five-toe pattern still found in amniotes. Further reduction had taken place in the temnospondyls, leaving the forefoot with four toes and the hind foot with five, a pattern still found in modern amphibians.^[10] The increasing knowledge of labyrinthodonts from Romer's gap has led to the challenging of the hypothesis that pentadactyly, as displayed by most modern tetrapods, is plesiomorphic. The number of digits was once thought to have been reduced in amphibians and reptiles independently,^[1]^[11] but more recent studies suggest that a single reduction occurred, along the tetrapod stem, in the Early Carboniferous.^[12]^[13] Even the early ichthyostegalians like Acanthostega and Ichthyostega appear to have had the forward ossified bony toes combined in a single stout digit, making them effectively five-toed.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Hall, Brian K. (1998). Evolutionary Developmental Biology. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-412-78580-1.
^ Lu, Jing; Zhu, Min; Long, John A.; Zhao, Wenjin; Senden, Tim J.; Jia, Liantao; Qiao, Tuo (2012-10-23). "The earliest known stem-tetrapod from the Lower Devonian of China". Nature Communications. 3 (1): 1160. Bibcode:2012NatCo...3.1160L. doi:10.1038/ncomms2170. hdl:1885/69314. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 23093197.
^ Coates, M. I.; Clack, J. A. (September 1990). "Polydactyly in the earliest known tetrapod limbs". Nature. 347 (6288): 66–69. Bibcode:1990Natur.347...66C. doi:10.1038/347066a0. S2CID 4319165.
^ Zhang, Jing; Wagh, Purva; Guay, Danielle; Sanchez-Pulido, Luis; Padhi, Bhaja K.; Korzh, Vladimir; Andrade-Navarro, Miguel A.; Akimenko, Marie-Andrée (July 2010). "Loss of fish actinotrichia proteins and the fin-to-limb transition". Nature. 466 (7303): 234–237. Bibcode:2010Natur.466..234Z. doi:10.1038/nature09137. PMID 20574421. S2CID 205221027.
^ Schneider, Igor; Shubin, Neil H. (December 2012). "Making Limbs from Fins". Developmental Cell. 23 (6): 1121–1122. doi:10.1016/j.devcel.2012.11.011. PMID 23237946.
^ Saxena, Aditya; Towers, Matthew; Cooper, Kimberly L. (2017-02-05). "The origins, scaling and loss of tetrapod digits". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 372 (1713). doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0482. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 5182414. PMID 27994123.
^ Laurin, Michel (January 1998). "The importance of global parsimony and historical bias in understanding tetrapod evolution. Part I. Systematics, middle ear evolution and jaw suspension". Annales des Sciences Naturelles - Zoologie et Biologie Animale. 19 (1): 1–42. doi:10.1016/S0003-4339(98)80132-9.
^ Marjanović, David; Laurin, Michel (September 2009). "The Origin(s) of Modern Amphibians: A Commentary" (PDF). Evolutionary Biology. 36 (3): 336–338. Bibcode:2009EvBio..36..336M. doi:10.1007/s11692-009-9065-8. S2CID 12023942. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-11-06. Retrieved 2021-11-22.
^ Gauthier, J.; Kluge, A. G.; Rowe, T. (1988). "The early evolution of the Amniota". In Benton, Michael J. (ed.). The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods: Amphibians, reptiles, birds. Vol. 1. Systematics Association. pp. 103–155. ISBN 978-0-19-857705-8.
^ Benton, M. (2005): Vertebrate Palaeontology 3rd edition. Blackwell Publishing^{[page needed]}
^ Coates, Michael (1991). "New Palaeontological Contributions to Limb Ontogeny and Phylogeny". Developmental Patterning of the Vertebrate Limb. pp. 325–337. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-3310-8_43. ISBN 978-1-4613-6457-3. S2CID 86020906.
^ Laurin, Michel (1998). "A Reevaluation of the Origin of Pentadactyly". Evolution. 52 (5): 1476–1482. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1998.tb02028.x. JSTOR 2411316. PMID 28565380. S2CID 33367097.
^ Ruta, Marcello; Coates, Michael I. (January 2007). "Dates, nodes and character conflict: Addressing the Lissamphibian origin problem". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 5 (1): 69–122. Bibcode:2007JSPal...5...69R. doi:10.1017/S1477201906002008. S2CID 86479890.