Universities, Byzantine. The medieval Greek world knew no autonomous and continuing institutions of higher education comparable to the universities of the later Middle Ages in Western Europe. But higher education, both general and professional, was provided by private teachers, by members of professional groups, and by officially appointed teachers paid by the state.
Le nom "université" désigne au Moyen Âge occidental une organisation corporative des élèves et des maîtres, avec ses fonctions et privilèges, qui cultive un ensemble d'études supérieures. L'existence d'une telle institution est fort contestée pour Byzance.
^Markopoulos, Athanasios, Education, Jeffreys, Elizabeth; Haldon, John F.; Cormack, Robin (编), The Oxford handbook of Byzantine studies, Oxford Handbooks in Classics and Ancient History, Oxford: Oxford University Press: 785–795, 2008, ISBN 978-0-19-925246-6
^Constantinides, C. N. Rhetoric in Byzantium: Papers from the Thirty-Fifth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies. Jeffreys, Elizabeth (编). Teachers and students of rhetoric in the late Byzantine period. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 2003: 39–53. ISBN 0-7546-3453-1.